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1 Aug 1975

Volume 27, Issue 3, pp. 103-161

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Lithium ammonium sulphate, a polar ferroelastic which is not simultaneously ferroelectric

B. O. Hildmann, Th. Hahn, L. E. Cross, and R. E. Newnham

Appl. Phys. Lett. 27, 103 (1975); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.88396 (2 pages) | Cited 32 times

Online Publication Date: 2 September 2008

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Lithium ammonium sulphate LiNH4SO4 has been shown to be the first of a new family of polar ferroelastic crystals which are not simultaneously ferroelectric. Stress‐induced shear twin motion in the ferroic phase below 10 °C verifies ferroelasticity, and the symmetry constraints are such that the prototypic polar axis does not change. From symmetry it is shown that only seven species of fully ferroelastic nonferroelectric polar ferroics are possible. Other crystals which may show this phenomenon are discussed.
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75.80.+q Magnetomechanical effects, magnetostriction
61.50.-f Structure of bulk crystals
77.80.-e Ferroelectricity and antiferroelectricity

Acoustically read pulsed image converter

Herbert R. Carleton

Appl. Phys. Lett. 27, 105 (1975); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.88397 (3 pages)

Online Publication Date: 2 September 2008

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An optical image scanner which employs a piezoelectric delay line and transversal interrogation scheme is proposed. Linear scanning with a resolution of 16 lines/in. and a sensitivity of 35 μW/cm2 have been achieved in a preliminary model. Estimates of limiting performance indicate the possibility of monolithic fabrication and resolutions in the region of 300 lines/in. using existing technology.
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42.79.Ls Scanners, image intensifiers, and image converters
42.79.Pw Imaging detectors and sensors
43.35.-c Ultrasonics, quantum acoustics, and physical effects of sound
43.60.+d Acoustic signal processing

Interaction of a 15‐kJ relativistic electron beam with a mirror‐confined plasma

P. A. Miller

Appl. Phys. Lett. 27, 107 (1975); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.88398 (3 pages) | Cited 10 times

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The interaction of an intense relativistic electron beam with a mirror‐confined plasma was studied. Beam parameters were nominally 600 kV, 300 kA, and 15 kJ. A 12‐cm‐diam cold hydrogen target plasma with ne∼2×1013/cm3 was preformed in a 2:1 mirror system with a mirror spacing of 50 cm and peak mirror field of 0.8 T. Background fill pressures from 1 to 50 mTorr were used. Beam transport through the plasma was good and net current levels were low. Energy deposition levels were near 2×1017 eV/cm3, consistent with expectations based on previous work. The use of tantalum anodes in order to increase the beam’s transverse velocity was found to quench the strong beam‐plasma interaction.
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52.40.Mj Particle beam interactions in plasmas
52.50.Gj Plasma heating by particle beams

Intensity and polarization effects of a single 30‐psec laser pulse on five‐photon surface photoeffect of gold

L. A. Lompre, J. Thebault, and Gy Farkas

Appl. Phys. Lett. 27, 110 (1975); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.88399 (3 pages) | Cited 11 times

Online Publication Date: 2 September 2008

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A single‐pulse 30‐psec Nd‐YAG laser was used to induce five‐photon photoelectric emission from a gold metal cathode. The time and the spectral distributions were Gaussian. The pulse was selected from a mode‐locked pulse train and amplified. Theoretically predicted intensity dependence curves have been obtained with a certain decrease of the photoionization probability towards the high light intensities. The measured polarization dependence shows that the photoeffect is a surface one. However, an interesting effect was found, which seems to be connected with the phase relations of the oscillating em field components.
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79.60.Bm Clean metal, semiconductor, and insulator surfaces
79.20.Ds Laser-beam impact phenomena

LaB6 single‐crystal tips as an electron source of high brightness

R. Shimizu, Y. Kataoka, S. Kawai, and T. Tanaka

Appl. Phys. Lett. 27, 113 (1975); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.88400 (2 pages) | Cited 10 times

Online Publication Date: 2 September 2008

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A LaB6 single crystal produced at the National Institute for Research in Inorganic Materials was used as an electron source of high brightness with a commercial‐type electron probe microanalyzer (EPMA). A single‐crystal tip of 0.2 mm ϕ×4 mm was cut out from a mother crystal of LaB6 obtained by discharge machining. The tip, held with Ta ribbons by electron beam welding, was mounted in a conventional tungsten hairpin filament holder which is commonly used in electron microscopes (CEM), scanning electron microscopes (SEM), and EPMA. Using this LaB6 emitter in an electron gun of the commercial type EPMA, JAX‐3, instead of the conventional tungsten hairpin, the gun was operated under the same conditions as the tungsten hairpin: vacuum between low 10−4 and high 10−5 Torr, emission current ∼100 μA at 25 kV. It is concluded from a comparison of the scanning electron micrographs obtained with the LaB6 emitter and the tungsten hairpin that the LaB6 emitter can well be used instead of the conventional tungsten hairpins as an electron source of higher brightness for CEM and SEM even in such a low vacuum as ∼10−5 Torr for practical use.
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79.40.+z Thermionic emission
29.25.-t Particle sources and targets

Subnanosecond microscopic holographic interferometry of plasmas produced by 1‐nsec CO2 laser pulses

R. Fedosejevs and M. C. Richardson

Appl. Phys. Lett. 27, 115 (1975); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.88401 (3 pages) | Cited 2 times

Online Publication Date: 2 September 2008

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Two‐dimensional distributions of the electron density within plasmas produced by 1‐nsec‐duration high‐intensity (≳1013 W/cm2) CO2 laser pulses on solid polyethylene targets have been obtained with the aid of microscopic holograhphic interferometry. Short 700‐psec pulses, derived from a synchronized ruby laser, were used to illuminate the interferometric system, which had a spatial resolution of ∼10 μ.
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52.70.Kz Optical (ultraviolet, visible, infrared) measurements
52.50.Jm Plasma production and heating by laser beams (laser-foil, laser-cluster, etc.)
42.40.Kw Holographic interferometry; other holographic techniques

Gain switching and Q spoiling of iodine laser with a shock wave

S. Ishii, B. Ahlborn, and F. L. Curzon

Appl. Phys. Lett. 27, 118 (1975); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.88402 (2 pages) | Cited 2 times

Online Publication Date: 2 September 2008

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The power output of an iodine laser has been increased and the half‐width of the laser spike reduced by compressing the photolytically pumped laser gas with a shock wave. The deflection of the beam in the density gradient of the shock front Q spoils the laser cavity until the shock front has traversed the lasing volume.
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42.55.Lt Gas lasers including excimer and metal-vapor lasers
47.40.Nm Shock wave interactions and shock effects
42.60.Da Resonators, cavities, amplifiers, arrays, and rings

Determination of semiconductor surface properties using surface acoustic waves

P. Das, M. E. Motamedi, and R. T. Webster

Appl. Phys. Lett. 27, 120 (1975); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.88403 (3 pages) | Cited 15 times

Online Publication Date: 2 September 2008

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Surface properties of semiconductors may be determined by measuring the change in attenuation constant, acoustoelectric voltage, and convolution output of a semiconductor on a lithium niobate acoustic surface wave convolver structure. The change is caused by the application of a dc pulse voltage. Experimental results are presented for both p‐ and n‐type silicon. The method is contactless, sensitive, and requires no sample preparation except polishing of one side. Also it is possible to study the variations of the semiconductor surface states along the direction of propagation of the surface wave by proper modification of this method.
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73.20.-r Electron states at surfaces and interfaces
72.50.+b Acoustoelectric effects
68.35.Gy Mechanical properties; surface strains
68.35.Iv Acoustical properties

Accurate and rapid reduction of experimental x‐ray data

T. C. Huang and William Parrish

Appl. Phys. Lett. 27, 123 (1975); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.88404 (2 pages) | Cited 13 times

Online Publication Date: 2 September 2008

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An automatic computer method for deriving the intensities, widths, and positions from experimental x‐ray diffraction and energy spectroscopy data is outlined. Complex overlapping clusters of peaks can be resolved and the data are corrected for aberrations.
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61.05.C- X-ray diffraction and scattering

Transition waveguides for coupling fibers to semiconductor lasers

David G. Dalgoutte, Gordon L. Mitchell, Roger L. K. Matsumoto, and William D. Scott

Appl. Phys. Lett. 27, 125 (1975); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.88377 (2 pages) | Cited 1 time

Online Publication Date: 2 September 2008

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The geometric mismatch between semiconductor lasers and single‐mode optical fibers or diffused waveguides causes serious light loss. Transition fibers with cores that change shape from rectangular to circular can be used to reduce these losses. Techniques for fabrication of transition fibers with losses of 1 dB are discussed.
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42.79.Gn Optical waveguides and couplers
42.81.-i Fiber optics
42.60.Jf Beam characteristics: profile, intensity, and power; spatial pattern formation

Scaling of the helium‐nitrogen charge transfer laser

C. B. Collins and A. J. Cunningham

Appl. Phys. Lett. 27, 127 (1975); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.88378 (2 pages) | Cited 25 times

Online Publication Date: 2 September 2008

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The scaling to high powers of the nitrogen ion laser pumped by charge transfer from He+2 is reported. Intense emission has been found from three laser lines at 3914, 4278, and 4709 Å upon discharge of a fast‐pulsed electron beam gun, APEX‐1, into several atmospheres of a mixture of helium and nitrogen. Excitation current densities were 1.4 kA/cm2 at 1 MV over a 1×10‐cm transverse geometry. The efficiency of the 4278‐Å laser emission was found to be proportional to the total pressure raised to the 1.2 power. Outputs of 36 mJ have been obtained from the 16‐cm3 working volume at 30‐atm pressure and a peak efficiency of 1.6% relative to the energy lost by the electron beam in this radiating volume has been achieved.
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42.55.Lt Gas lasers including excimer and metal-vapor lasers
82.30.Fi Ion-molecule, ion-ion, and charge-transfer reactions

Low‐power cw generation of coherent anti‐Stokes Raman radiation in CH4 gas

J. J. Barrett and R. F. Begley

Appl. Phys. Lett. 27, 129 (1975); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.88379 (3 pages) | Cited 26 times

Online Publication Date: 2 September 2008

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Coherent continuous wave anti‐Stokes Raman scattering has been observed using a fixed‐frequency pump beam (at the argon laser wavelength 514.53 nm) and a tunable‐frequency Stokes beam (provided by a dye laser at 605.41 nm) focused in a cell containing 1 atm of CH4 gas. This four‐frequency mixing experiment utilized the ν1 symmetric vibrational mode in CH4 at 2916.7 cm−1, resulting in a coherent anti‐Stokes signal at 447.37 nm. The power measured in the 514.53‐nm pump beam was 0.46 W and the effective power in the Stokes beam was calculated to be about 36 mW. The calculated coherent anti‐Stokes power of 2.18×10−13 W agrees very well with the experimentally observed anti‐Stokes power.
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42.65.Dr Stimulated Raman scattering; CARS
42.65.Es Stimulated Brillouin and Rayleigh scattering
33.20.Ea Infrared spectra
33.20.Fb Raman and Rayleigh spectra (including optical scattering)

Liquid‐phase epitaxial growth of thin GaAs layers from supercooled solutions

Minoru Mihara, Nobuyuki Toyoda, and Tohru Hara

Appl. Phys. Lett. 27, 131 (1975); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.88380 (3 pages) | Cited 3 times

Online Publication Date: 2 September 2008

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A liquid‐phase epitaxial technique using supercooled solutions free from precipitates has been developed. Excellent surface morphology and a reproducible thickness control of GaAs layers within 7% have been obtained for layer thicknesses at around 0.6 μ. This technique is readily applicable to GaAs field‐effect transistors (FET’s) and other devices.
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68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
81.10.Dn Growth from solutions
81.10.Fq Growth from melts; zone melting and refining
81.15.Lm Liquid phase epitaxy; deposition from liquid phases (melts, solutions, and surface layers on liquids)

Stokes pulse growth in transient stimulated Raman scattering

W. H. Lowdermilk and G. I. Kachen

Appl. Phys. Lett. 27, 133 (1975); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.88381 (3 pages) | Cited 10 times

Online Publication Date: 2 September 2008

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Transient stimulated Raman scattering in H2 and SF6 gas was studied with the use of a high‐speed streak camera. The results are found to be in excellent agreement with theoretical predictions.
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42.65.Dr Stimulated Raman scattering; CARS
42.65.Es Stimulated Brillouin and Rayleigh scattering
33.20.Ea Infrared spectra
33.20.Fb Raman and Rayleigh spectra (including optical scattering)

Infrared holograms recorded in high‐resolution photographic plates with the Herschel reversal

Andrejs Graube

Appl. Phys. Lett. 27, 136 (1975); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.88382 (2 pages) | Cited 2 times

Online Publication Date: 2 September 2008

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High‐resolution holograms have been produced with 1.06‐μm radiation in photographic plates by utilizing the Herschel reversal effect. Diffraction efficiencies of 25% have been achieved with red light reconstruction, and the spatial frequency response exceeds 1300 cycles/mm. The H and D curve for Herschel reversal in Kodak 120−01 plates is presented.
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42.40.Kw Holographic interferometry; other holographic techniques
42.40.Ht Hologram recording and readout methods

Continuous operation over 10 000 h of GaAs/GaAlAs double‐heterostructure laser without lattice mismatch compensation

H. Kan, H. Namizaki, M. Ishii, and A. Ito

Appl. Phys. Lett. 27, 138 (1975); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.88383 (2 pages) | Cited 8 times

Online Publication Date: 2 September 2008

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By improving the crystal growth conditions, continuous operation over 10 000 h has been achieved with a conventional metallic stripe geometry double‐heterostructure laser without using additional Al to the GaAs active region or P to the adjacent GaAlAs layers, and this laser is still being operated.
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42.60.Jf Beam characteristics: profile, intensity, and power; spatial pattern formation
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology

Self‐quenching in semiconductor lasers and its applications in optical memory readout

A. Seko, Y. Mitsuhashi, T. Morikawa, J. Shimada, and K. Sakurai

Appl. Phys. Lett. 27, 140 (1975); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.88384 (2 pages) | Cited 6 times

Online Publication Date: 2 September 2008

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The laser oscillation in a double‐heterostructure GaAlAs laser is quenched by its own output laser beam. Application of this effect in optical memory readout is suggested and demonstrated.
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42.60.Jf Beam characteristics: profile, intensity, and power; spatial pattern formation
42.30.-d Imaging and optical processing
42.79.Vb Optical storage systems, optical disks
42.62.-b Laser applications

Room‐temperature operation of low‐threshold separate‐confinement heterostructure injection laser with distributed feedback

H. C. Casey, S. Somekh, and M. Ilegems

Appl. Phys. Lett. 27, 142 (1975); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.88385 (3 pages) | Cited 35 times

Online Publication Date: 2 September 2008

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Separate‐confinement heterostructure injection lasers with periodic corrugations in the optical cavity were prepared by a hybrid liquid phase epitaxy (LPE) and molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) growth process. The N‐Al0.3Ga0.7As, N‐Al0.12Ga0.88As, p‐GaAs active layer, and P‐Al0.12Ga0.88As layers were grown by LPE, a 0.3748‐μm periodic corrugation was ion milled into the P‐Al0.12Ga0.88As layer, and then the P‐Al0.3Ga0.7As and p‐GaAs top layers were grown over the corrugation by MBE. The temperature dependence of the lasing wavelength between 12.6 and 24.8 °C demonstrated the behavior expected for a distributed‐feedback laser. The threshold current density was 2.2 kA/cm2 at room temperature.
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42.60.Jf Beam characteristics: profile, intensity, and power; spatial pattern formation
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology

GaAs‐GaAlAs distributed‐feedback diode lasers with separate optical and carrier confinement

K. Aiki, M. Nakamura, J. Umeda, A. Yariv, A. Katzir, and H. W. Yen

Appl. Phys. Lett. 27, 145 (1975); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.88386 (2 pages) | Cited 27 times

Online Publication Date: 2 September 2008

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Remarkable reduction of the threshold current density is achieved in GaAs‐GaAlAs distributed‐feedback diode lasers by adopting a separate‐confinement heterostructure. The diodes are lased successfully at temperatures up to 340 °K under pulsed operation. The lowest threshold current density is 3 kA/cm2 at 300 °K.
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42.60.Jf Beam characteristics: profile, intensity, and power; spatial pattern formation
73.40.Lq Other semiconductor-to-semiconductor contacts, p-n junctions, and heterojunctions

Hot‐carrier instability in IGFET’s

S. A. Abbas and R. C. Dockerty

Appl. Phys. Lett. 27, 147 (1975); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.88387 (2 pages) | Cited 20 times

Online Publication Date: 2 September 2008

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Injection of hot carriers from the channel region into the gate insulator of an IGFET imposes design constraints on the device dimensions and operating voltages. A fraction of the injected charge is trapped in the gate dielectric, and an undesirable shift in the operating characteristics results. The magnitude of the shift is related to the device dimensions, operating voltages, and gate dielectric.
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85.30.Tv Field effect devices

Defect‐controlled generation in deeply depleted MOS‐C structures

D. W. Small and R. F. Pierret

Appl. Phys. Lett. 27, 148 (1975); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.88388 (3 pages) | Cited 4 times

Online Publication Date: 2 September 2008

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A model and supporting experimental evidence are presented to explain the nonlinear carrier generation rate versus semiconductor depletion width dependence which is frequently observed in the course of carrier generation lifetime (τ0) measurements. Experimental observations indicate a direct correlation between the occurrence of the nonlinear generation rate exhibited by MOS‐C structures and a large Si defect concentration, thereby suggesting that, when the defect concentration is large, the carrier generation rate within a structure is totally dominated by enhanced generation from bulk centers positioned in the vicinity of defect sites.
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73.40.Qv Metal-insulator-semiconductor structures (including semiconductor-to-insulator)
61.72.Nn Stacking faults and other planar or extended defects

Nitrogen reaction at a silicon–silicon dioxide interface

S. I. Raider, R. A. Gdula, and J. R. Petrak

Appl. Phys. Lett. 27, 150 (1975); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.88389 (3 pages) | Cited 43 times

Online Publication Date: 2 September 2008

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Evidence is provided indicating that a nitridation reaction occurs at a silicon–silicon dioxide interface during high‐temperature annealing in nitrogen. The factors affecting nitrogen‐reaction kinetics are similar to those affecting oxidation of silicon with dry oxygen. The nitridation reaction is significantly slower than the oxidation reaction, and trace amounts of oxidants can effectively compete with nitrogen for silicon reaction sites.
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68.35.Md Surface thermodynamics, surface energies
73.40.Qv Metal-insulator-semiconductor structures (including semiconductor-to-insulator)
82.65.+r Surface and interface chemistry; heterogeneous catalysis at surfaces

Nitrogen‐silicon reaction and its influence on the dielectric strength of thermal silicon dioxide

B. H. Vromen

Appl. Phys. Lett. 27, 152 (1975); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.88390 (3 pages) | Cited 23 times

Online Publication Date: 2 September 2008

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Exposure of silicon to a nitrogen ambient at 1050 °C either before or after oxidation can adversely affect the dielectric strength of thermal oxides. An exposure of 20–30 min and a nitrogen concentration of about 0.1 at% in the silicon can produce such effects. The damaged layer extends for more than 0.13 μm inside the exposed silicon.
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77.22.Jp Dielectric breakdown and space-charge effects
68.35.Md Surface thermodynamics, surface energies
73.40.Qv Metal-insulator-semiconductor structures (including semiconductor-to-insulator)

Thin‐film dc SQUID with low noise and drift

John Clarke, Wolfgang M. Goubau, and Mark B. Ketchen

Appl. Phys. Lett. 27, 155 (1975); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.88391 (2 pages) | Cited 6 times

Online Publication Date: 2 September 2008

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We describe the fabrication and operation of thin‐film dc SQUID’s of cylindrical geometry that make use of shunted Nb‐NbOx‐Pb tunnel junctions. A typical noise power spectrum is shown. At frequencies between 2×10−2 Hz and the electronic roll‐off frequency, the flux resolution is 3.5×10−5 ϕ0/(Hz)1/2, corresponding to a magnetic field resolution of 10−10 G/(Hz)1/2. This resolution appears to be set by intrinsic sensor noise. Below 2×10−2 Hz, the spectrum is approximately 1/f. A 20‐h plot of SQUID output as a function of time demonstrates an average drift of less than 2×10−5 ϕ0/h.
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85.25.Dq Superconducting quantum interference devices (SQUIDs)

Metallic superconducting Si and Ge produced by vapor quenching on Cu

Carlo Reale

Appl. Phys. Lett. 27, 157 (1975); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.88392 (2 pages) | Cited 12 times

Online Publication Date: 2 September 2008

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Fine‐grained Si and Ge overlays crystallized in a metastable fcc phase were obtained by vapor quenching at 4.2 K onto microcrystalline Cu films quench‐condensed at the same temperature on glass substrates. Measurements of the electrical resistance show that in this abnormal form Si and Ge behave as metals and can become superconductors. On warming, the metallic state keeps up to a critical temperature at which the overlay breaks. The fracture may be attributed to the large increase in volume occurring when the fcc phase transforms to the normal diamond‐type semiconducting structure.
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74.78.-w Superconducting films and low-dimensional structures
72.60.+g Mixed conductivity and conductivity transitions
64.70.K- Solid-solid transitions
74.10.+v Occurrence, potential candidates
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