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15 Dec 1977

Volume 31, Issue 12, pp. 791-854

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Phase imaging in reflection with the acoustic microscope

A. Atalar, C. F. Quate, and H. K. Wickramasinghe

Appl. Phys. Lett. 31, 791 (1977); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.89551 (3 pages) | Cited 31 times

Online Publication Date: 26 August 2008

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When a polished surface of a single crystal is examined with a converging acoustic beam the reflected signal has a characteristic response that is dependent upon the elastic properties of the reflecting surface. This property can be used in the acoustic microscope to monitor the thickness of layers deposited on these surfaces and the small‐scale variations of the elastic parameters in these materials.
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43.20.Fn Scattering of acoustic waves
43.35.Yb Ultrasonic instrumentation and measurement techniques
43.35.Sx Acoustooptical effects, optoacoustics, acoustical visualization, acoustical microscopy, and acoustical holography
68.35.Gy Mechanical properties; surface strains
68.35.Iv Acoustical properties

Image resolution of the scanning acoustic microscope

R. D. Weglein and R. G. Wilson

Appl. Phys. Lett. 31, 793 (1977); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.89552 (4 pages) | Cited 7 times

Online Publication Date: 26 August 2008

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We have measured the spatial frequency response of an experimental scanning acoustic microscope (SAM) at 375 MHz, using an acoustic high‐resolution reflection test target consisting of Au bars on a silicon substrate. Although the instrument resolves 1.6‐μm line detail quite well, in favorable agreement with theoretical predictions, the shape of the spatial frequency response curve differs substantially from expectations.
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43.35.Yb Ultrasonic instrumentation and measurement techniques
43.35.Sx Acoustooptical effects, optoacoustics, acoustical visualization, acoustical microscopy, and acoustical holography
07.05.Hd Data acquisition: hardware and software
07.05.Kf Data analysis: algorithms and implementation; data management
07.05.Rm Data presentation and visualization: algorithms and implementation
68.35.Gy Mechanical properties; surface strains
68.35.Iv Acoustical properties

High‐speed camera investigation of CO2 TEA laser discharges

Y. Sakai, S. Sakamoto, H. Tagashira, and S. Maeda

Appl. Phys. Lett. 31, 796 (1977); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.89553 (3 pages) | Cited 2 times

Online Publication Date: 26 August 2008

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Glow formation and glow‐to‐arc transition processes of moderate‐volume atmospheric‐pressure discharge in a CO2 laser gas mixture with and without external ultraviolet volume preionization are studied optically by an image‐converter‐intensifier camera. Three typical types of photographs for (i) glow and arc formation with preionization, (ii) glow formation only with preionization, and (iii) glow and arc formation without forming network. Discharge development is compared, and dominant factors to suppress arc formation of relevance to designing CO2 TEA lasers are discussed.
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42.55.Lt Gas lasers including excimer and metal-vapor lasers
52.80.Mg Arcs; sparks; lightning; atmospheric electricity
52.80.Hc Glow; corona
42.60.By Design of specific laser systems

The determination of plasma Z‐pinch effect by intrinsic stimulated emission

Juh Tzeng Lue and Jen Min Liang

Appl. Phys. Lett. 31, 798 (1977); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.89554 (3 pages) | Cited 2 times

Online Publication Date: 26 August 2008

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The plasma Z‐pinch behavior has been observed in a relatively small‐bore diameter tube and low bank voltage discharge system. The instant of the occurrence of the laser line at 4880 Å coincides with the plasma pinch time calculated by using a one‐fluid snow‐plow model. A determination of plasma pinch parameters by measuring the intrinsic stimulated emission of the ions is described.
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52.55.Ez Theta pinch
42.60.Jf Beam characteristics: profile, intensity, and power; spatial pattern formation
52.70.Kz Optical (ultraviolet, visible, infrared) measurements

Characterization of an ultradense reproducible Z pinch

D. Dusto, F P. D. Rockett, D. G. Stee, F J. G. Ackenhusen, D. R. Bach, and J. J. Duderstadt

Appl. Phys. Lett. 31, 801 (1977); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.89555 (3 pages) | Cited 7 times

Online Publication Date: 26 August 2008

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The apparent complexity of the laser‐plasma coupling in laser fusion target irradiation has stimulated the need for carefully controlled experimental studies of the laser‐plasma interaction at the critical surface. A helium Z pinch has been constructed which produces a high density plasma, independent of the laser, enabling the separation of the laser‐plasma interaction physics from the plasma formation mechanism. Its peak electron density (4×1019 cm−3), critical density scale length (70–200 μ), and temperature (∼25 eV) make it suitable for simulating and studying laser‐pellet interaction mechanisms at CO2 laser wavelengths. Detailed numerical modelling of these experiments was employed as a check against our diagnostics, as well as providing physical insight in those ranges of experimental parameters where measurements were not made.
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52.55.Ez Theta pinch
52.65.-y Plasma simulation
52.50.Dg Plasma sources
52.70.Kz Optical (ultraviolet, visible, infrared) measurements

Light detection in dielectric waveguides by a photodiode through direct evanescent field coupling

T. R. Ranganath and Shyh Wang

Appl. Phys. Lett. 31, 803 (1977); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.89556 (4 pages) | Cited 1 time

Online Publication Date: 26 August 2008

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Though LiNbO3 and LiTaO3 have excellent electro‐optic properties, they are insulators and therefore do not lend themselves for the realization of an efficient photodetector scheme. Using the idea of evanescent coupling we propose and demonstrate a convenient and efficient light detection scheme to be used with a variety of dielectric waveguide devices. The scheme utilizes an etched mesa photodiode fabricated in silicon, evanescently coupled to a waveguide for light detection. The high detection sensitivity (0.3 mA/mW at λ=6328 Å) and the possibility of incorporating integrated circuits on a common substrate (in Si or GaAs) make the scheme very attractive for hybrid integration of thin‐film optical and electronic devices.
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42.82.-m Integrated optics
85.60.Dw Photodiodes; phototransistors; photoresistors
85.40.Xx Hybrid microelectronics; thick films
42.30.-d Imaging and optical processing

A study of Cd diffusion into PbTe and Pb1−xSnxTe crystals using Hall‐effect conductivity and Cd solubility measurements

E. Silberg and A. Zemel

Appl. Phys. Lett. 31, 807 (1977); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.89557 (3 pages) | Cited 8 times

Online Publication Date: 26 August 2008

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Hall‐effect, conductivity, and solubility measurements were carried out on Cd‐diffused PbTe and Pb1−xSnxTe single crystals, doped under various Cd vapor partial pressures between 10−4 and 10−1 Torr. Most of the diffused Cd atoms are found to distribute uniformly as an electrically inactive impurity in the crystal lattice and only a small fraction act as active donors, most probably through metal vacancy sites. Saturation in electron concentration is observed at the high Cd partial pressures which can be related to the excess metal point‐defect concentration of the as‐grown cooled crystals.
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81.40.Rs Electrical and magnetic properties related to treatment conditions
72.20.Dp General theory, scattering mechanisms
66.30.J- Diffusion of impurities

Low‐velocity stopping of heavy ions

R. K. Nesbet and J. F. Ziegler

Appl. Phys. Lett. 31, 810 (1977); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.89548 (3 pages) | Cited 6 times

Online Publication Date: 26 August 2008

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The apparent discrepancy between theory and experiment in low‐velocity electronic stopping of heavy ions is shown to be resolved for several representative cases by taking into account the velocity dependence of both the effective charge of the ions and of the atomic stopping power for fixed ionic charge. A new formula for the electron density dependence of the stopping number is introduced, based on recent work by Vager and Gemmell.
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61.85.+p Channeling phenomena (blocking, energy loss, etc.)
29.40.-n Radiation detectors

Studies of Ca+ implanted Mo foil by means of work‐function measurements and AES

Tadashi Ishida, Mamoru Sato, Kiyoshi Fukui, and Kazuyuki Ueda

Appl. Phys. Lett. 31, 813 (1977); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.89549 (3 pages)

Online Publication Date: 26 August 2008

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In order to make a new alloy an electron emitter, several samples of Mo foils implanted with Ca+ ions were prepared. The range distributions of Ca in Mo were investigated by the use of Auger electron spectroscopy (AES) combined with Ar ion sputtering. At the same time the correlation between the surface components and the photoelectric work functions of the sample was also investigated during the sputtering. In preliminary experiment the work function of Mo foil was decreased about 1 eV due to the implantation of Ca+ ions to the amount of 1×1017 ions/cm2.
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79.20.Rf Atomic, molecular, and ion beam impact and interactions with surfaces
79.60.Bm Clean metal, semiconductor, and insulator surfaces
73.30.+y Surface double layers, Schottky barriers, and work functions
61.80.Jh Ion radiation effects

Nonlinear optical susceptibilities of AlN film

Y. Fujii, S. Yoshida, S. Misawa, S. Maekawa, and T. Sakudo

Appl. Phys. Lett. 31, 815 (1977); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.89550 (2 pages) | Cited 20 times

Online Publication Date: 26 August 2008

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The nonlinear optical coefficients of AlN have been determined as ‖d33‖= (23.2±35%) dQ11 and ‖d31‖ ≲0.04‖d33‖ for the c‐plate film and for a fundamental beam at 1.064 μm. The result is discussed with reference to the bond‐charge model.
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42.65.Dr Stimulated Raman scattering; CARS
42.65.Es Stimulated Brillouin and Rayleigh scattering
42.65.Ky Frequency conversion; harmonic generation, including higher-order harmonic generation
68.60.-p Physical properties of thin films, nonelectronic
77.55.-g Dielectric thin films
75.20.Ck Nonmetals

Optical regeneration of aged WO3 electrochromic cells

T. J. Knowles

Appl. Phys. Lett. 31, 817 (1977); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.89558 (2 pages) | Cited 5 times

Online Publication Date: 26 August 2008

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Continuously cycled display cells of evaporated WO3 on tin oxide show a progressive reduction in contrast with time. Partial restoration of the cells was observed when the WO3 was irradiated with uv, particularly if the cell was biased into the bleaching mode. The observed effect is consistent with optical depopulation and subsequent removal of trapped charge.
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85.60.Pg Display systems
82.45.-h Electrochemistry and electrophoresis
72.40.+w Photoconduction and photovoltaic effects

Short cavity dye laser excited by an electron beam‐pumped semiconductor laser

J. R. Onstott

Appl. Phys. Lett. 31, 818 (1977); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.89559 (3 pages) | Cited 2 times

Online Publication Date: 26 August 2008

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Laser emission has been observed from a thin‐film solid solution of R6G in PMMA when excited by an electron‐beam‐pumped semiconductor laser. Both lasers are operated in the end‐pumped configuration so that two‐dimensional scannability of the dye laser emission is realized.
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42.55.Mv Dye lasers
42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.60.By Design of specific laser systems

A general two‐dimensional theory for volume holograms

L. Solymar

Appl. Phys. Lett. 31, 820 (1977); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.89560 (3 pages) | Cited 33 times

Online Publication Date: 26 August 2008

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Coupled partial differential equations are derived for the amplitude of the electric field in a general two‐dimensional volume hologram. Nonuniform amplitude distributions, nonplanar wave fronts, losses, and non‐Bragg incidence are considered both for dielectric and absorption gratings. The formulation is in holographic terminology but the equations are valid for weakly modulated Bragg devices in general.
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74.20.-z Theories and models of superconducting state
03.50.De Classical electromagnetism, Maxwell equations
41.20.Jb Electromagnetic wave propagation; radiowave propagation

Nonlinear refractive index of fluoride crystals

D. Milam, M. J. Weber, and A. J. Glass

Appl. Phys. Lett. 31, 822 (1977); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.89561 (4 pages) | Cited 23 times

Online Publication Date: 26 August 2008

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Nonlinear refractive‐index coefficients of 11 fluoride crystals were measured at 1064 nm using time‐resolved interferometry. A simple empirical expression is given for the index nonlinearity in terms of the d‐line refractive index and Abbé number which agrees with measured values for both fluoride crystals and optical glasses and which can be used to estimate index nonlinearities. Since the nonlinear indices of several fluoride crystals are among the smallest reported for solids, these materials are of interest for transmitting optical components in high‐power laser systems where self‐focusing is important.
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42.62.-b Laser applications
42.65.-k Nonlinear optics
78.20.Ci Optical constants (including refractive index, complex dielectric constant, absorption, reflection and transmission coefficients, emissivity)
42.79.Fm Reflectors, beam splitters, and deflectors
42.79.Ls Scanners, image intensifiers, and image converters

Harmonic generation in Nd : laser‐produced plasmas

E. A. McLean, J. A. Stamper, B. H. Ripin, H. R. Grie, F J. M. McMahon, and S. E. Bodner

Appl. Phys. Lett. 31, 825 (1977); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.89562 (3 pages) | Cited 23 times

Online Publication Date: 26 August 2008

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The fundamental and second through the fifth harmonic spectral lines have been observed from the plasma produced when a 75‐psec Nd : glass laser (∼1016 W/cm2) is focused onto a thick planar polystyrene target. Both line profiles and relative intensities of these harmonic are given.
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52.50.Jm Plasma production and heating by laser beams (laser-foil, laser-cluster, etc.)
42.65.Dr Stimulated Raman scattering; CARS
42.65.Es Stimulated Brillouin and Rayleigh scattering
42.65.Ky Frequency conversion; harmonic generation, including higher-order harmonic generation
52.25.Os Emission, absorption, and scattering of electromagnetic radiation
07.60.Rd Visible and ultraviolet spectrometers

A pulser‐sustainer carbon monoxide electric‐discharge supersonic laser

Daryl J. Monson and G. Srinivasan

Appl. Phys. Lett. 31, 828 (1977); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.89563 (2 pages) | Cited 6 times

Online Publication Date: 26 August 2008

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Operation of a cw CO electric‐discharge supersonic laser with a pulser‐sustainer discharge is described. High‐power operation as well as independent control over electron energy and density are demonstrated. Maximum input power achieved to date is 100 kW. The maximum output power is 6 kW or 10% of the sustainer positive column power. Much improved performance appears possible.
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42.55.Lt Gas lasers including excimer and metal-vapor lasers

Trace‐gas analysis with a resonant optoacoustic cell operating inside the cavity of a CO2 laser

S. Shtrikman and M. Slatkine

Appl. Phys. Lett. 31, 830 (1977); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.89564 (2 pages) | Cited 18 times

Online Publication Date: 26 August 2008

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An intracavity optoacoustic trace‐gas analyzer is described and performance tests for ethylene are given. The analyzer uses a tunable CO2 laser and a resonant optoacoustic cell of novel design with high immunity to window interference and suitable for measurements under flow conditions. The resonant cell can also be operated with no windows at all. The sensitivity of the windowless analyzer to gas absorption is below 10−7 cm−1 for 1‐Hz bandwidth detection. It is estimated that by reduction of the laser’s internal losses, the measurable absorption can be lowered to 3×10−10 cm−1.
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82.80.-d Chemical analysis and related physical methods of analysis
42.62.-b Laser applications
78.20.hb Piezo-optical, elasto-optical, acousto-optical, and photoelastic effects

Laser action in copper with copper acetate as a lasant

G. Chakrapani, T. A. Prasada Rao, A. A. N. Murty, and D. Ramachandra Rao

Appl. Phys. Lett. 31, 832 (1977); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.89565 (2 pages) | Cited 5 times

Online Publication Date: 26 August 2008

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Laser action in copper at 5106 and 5782 Å is reported from double pulsed discharges with a new lasant, cupric acetate, at an optimum temperature of 230 °C. Several interesting laser characteristics observed as a function of temperature and delay between pulses are discussed for both transitions.
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42.55.Lt Gas lasers including excimer and metal-vapor lasers
42.60.By Design of specific laser systems
82.30.Lp Decomposition reactions (pyrolysis, dissociation, and fragmentation)

Optical properties of mixed‐oxide WO3/MoO3 electrochromic films

Brian W. Faughnan and Richard S. Crandall

Appl. Phys. Lett. 31, 834 (1977); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.89566 (3 pages) | Cited 51 times

Online Publication Date: 26 August 2008

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The electrochromic optical absorption of mixed‐oxide WO3/MoO3 amorphous films occurs at higher energy than either pure oxide alone. The systematics of the energy shifts as a function of MoO3 concentration and coloration density is determined. The data is explained by the intervalency charge‐transfer model if we assume that electrons trapped at Mo6+ ions lie 0.73 eV deeper than electrons on W6+ ions. Measurements of electron diffusion in mixed oxides support this hypothesis. The maximum absorption peak of mixed oxides is 2.15 eV compared with 1.4 eV for WO3. This is close to the peak in eye sensitivity, thereby leading to improved electrochromic display devices.
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75.20.Ck Nonmetals
78.20.Jq Electro-optical effects
73.61.Cw Elemental semiconductors
73.61.Ey III-V semiconductors
73.61.Ga II-VI semiconductors
73.61.Jc Amorphous semiconductors; glasses
73.61.Le Other inorganic semiconductors
85.60.Pg Display systems

GaAlAs Schottky directional‐coupler switch

A. R. Reisinger, D. W. Bellavance, and K. L. Lawley

Appl. Phys. Lett. 31, 836 (1977); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.89567 (3 pages) | Cited 6 times

Online Publication Date: 26 August 2008

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Electro‐optic metal‐gap directional‐coupler switches have been fabricated in GaAlAs waveguide structures. A very thin GaAs cap facilitates the electroplating of Schottky barriers without significantly increasing the optical attenuation at wavelengths near 8600 Å, making this type of device suitable for integration with a GaAs laser source on a common chip. The performance of the switch was investigated at 1.06 m. A 17‐dB extinction ratio in the coupled channel was measured at a reverse‐bias voltage of 25 V.
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42.79.Hp Optical processors, correlators, and modulators
42.82.-m Integrated optics
85.30.Hi Surface barrier, boundary, and point contact devices

A monolithic series‐array solar‐cell system

Raymond M. Warner, Eileen M. Murray, and Wiley K. Smith

Appl. Phys. Lett. 31, 838 (1977); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.89568 (2 pages) | Cited 6 times

Online Publication Date: 26 August 2008

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By combining solar‐cell technology and the dielectric‐isolation technology that was developed in the early 1960’s for integrated circuits, we have fabricated monolithic series‐connected multicell arrays. Prototype devices have exhibited an efficiency of 8%.
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84.60.Jt Photoelectric conversion
85.40.-e Microelectronics: LSI, VLSI, ULSI; integrated circuit fabrication technology

Ga(1−x)AlxAs/Ga(1−y)AlyAs double‐heterostructure room‐temperature lasers grown by metalorganic chemical vapor deposition

R. D. Dupuis and P. D. Dapkus

Appl. Phys. Lett. 31, 839 (1977); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.89569 (3 pages) | Cited 21 times

Online Publication Date: 26 August 2008

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Room‐temperature operation of Ga(1−x)AlxAs/Ga(1−y)AlyAs double‐heterostructure lasers grown by metalorganic chemical vapor deposition (MO‐CVD) has been achieved. These devices have Ga(1−y)AlyAs active layers of 0.8≲y≲0.12 and emit in the wavelength range 8000<λ<8300 Å. Broad‐area Fabry‐Perot lasers with pulsed threshold current densities as low as ∼1.2 kA/cm2 have been fabricated. These lasers are produced from five‐layer epitaxial structures grown entirely by the MO‐CVD process and are the first such devices to be fabricated from materials grown by a vapor‐phase process.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
78.45.+h Stimulated emission

Velocity saturation and the conduction‐band structure of Ga1−xAlxAs under pressure

T. Sugeta, A. Majerfeld, A. K. Saxena, and P. N. Robson

Appl. Phys. Lett. 31, 842 (1977); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.89570 (3 pages) | Cited 14 times

Online Publication Date: 26 August 2008

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The high‐field current‐field characteristics of Ga1−xAlxAs transferred‐electron‐effect devices for 0.2<x<0.4 have been measured under hydrostatic pressure, as well as the pressure dependence of the Hall coefficient in the range 0–15 kbar. From the critical pressure to suppress current instabilities and the Hall‐coefficient data, the energy positions of the L and X conduction‐band minima are derived for 0<x<0.45. The Γ‐L and Γ‐X energy separations for GaAs are determined to be 0.29±0.01 and 0.485 eV, respectively. The Γ‐X and Γ‐L crossover points are x=0.43 and 0.45±0.02, respectively. The alloy composition for velocity saturation is x=0.33, and the corresponding threshold field, as determined from a probe measurement, is 6.5±0.5 kV/cm.
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72.20.Ht High-field and nonlinear effects
62.50.-p High-pressure effects in solids and liquids
71.20.Nr Semiconductor compounds
71.20.Ps Other inorganic compounds
72.20.My Galvanomagnetic and other magnetotransport effects

Effects of implantant depth distribution on photoluminescence spectra in Be‐implanted GaAs

S. G. Bishop, J. Comas, S. Sundaram, and B. D. McCombe

Appl. Phys. Lett. 31, 845 (1977); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.89571 (3 pages) | Cited 5 times

Online Publication Date: 26 August 2008

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Photoluminescence spectra from ion‐implanted Be acceptors in GaAs have been studied as a function of wavelength and intensity of excitation light over the implant‐fluence range 3×1012 to 1×1015 cm−2. It is demonstrated that the nonuniform distributions of implantant concentration as a function of depth in the implanted layer produce a profiling effect which causes anomalous changes in photoluminescence line shapes and energy positions as a function of excitation intensity. These results imply photoexcited carrier diffusion lengths of much less than 1 μm in implanted and annealed layers in bulk GaAs.
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78.40.Fy Semiconductors
61.72.U- Doping and impurity implantation
61.80.Jh Ion radiation effects
61.72.sd Impurity concentration
61.72.sh Impurity distribution
61.72.sm Impurity gradients

Dopant profiles determined from enhancement‐mode MOSFET dc measurements

M. G. Buehler

Appl. Phys. Lett. 31, 848 (1977); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.89572 (3 pages) | Cited 5 times

Online Publication Date: 26 August 2008

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Simplified algorithms are described which allow the determination of the dopant profile in the gate region of a four‐terminal enhancement‐mode metal‐oxide‐silicon field‐effect transistor (MOSFET). The method calls for the dc measurement of the source‐body voltage VSB as a function of the gate‐source voltage VGS for a fixed minority‐carrier channel current. The profile depth is proportional to dVSB/dVGS and the dopant density is inversely proportional to d2VSB/dV2GS. Only the oxide and silicon dielectric constants and the oxide thickness are needed in the computations. The data acquisition was computerized and includes the use of an operational amplifier circuit. The method is illustrated by the profile of a phosphorus layer implanted in an n‐type silicon substrate.
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61.72.sd Impurity concentration
61.72.sh Impurity distribution
61.72.sm Impurity gradients
73.40.Qv Metal-insulator-semiconductor structures (including semiconductor-to-insulator)
85.30.Tv Field effect devices
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