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1 Aug 1982

Volume 41, Issue 3, pp. 211-304

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Picosecond electro‐optic sampling system

J. A. Valdmanis, G. Mourou, and C. W. Gabel

Appl. Phys. Lett. 41, 211 (1982); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.93485 (2 pages) | Cited 101 times

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We report the construction of a sensitive electro‐optic sampling system for the measurement of ultrafast electrical transients. This system has a temporal resolution of lessthan 4 ps (over 100‐ GHz bandwidth), better than 50‐μV sensitivity and potential for a temporal resolution reaching the single picosecond. Demonstrated applications are ultrafast photodetector response characterization and time resolved photoconductivity.
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85.60.-q Optoelectronic devices
42.79.Hp Optical processors, correlators, and modulators

Self‐injected neodymium‐yttrium aluminum garnet laser with an unstable cavity

E. Palange, C. H. Brito Cruz, P. Di Lazzaro, and F. De Martini

Appl. Phys. Lett. 41, 213 (1982); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.93486 (2 pages) | Cited 6 times

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The first ’’self‐injected’’ unstable resonator laser is reported. 1‐ns, high peak power, single‐mode pulses are generated with neodymium‐yttrium aluminum garnet (Nd‐YAG) laser made with the same relevant optical components of the commercial DCR1 Quanta Ray oscillator.
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42.60.Da Resonators, cavities, amplifiers, arrays, and rings
42.55.Rz Doped-insulator lasers and other solid state lasers

Comparison of guided wave approaches to optical bistability

George I. Stegeman

Appl. Phys. Lett. 41, 214 (1982); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.93487 (3 pages) | Cited 10 times

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The minimum power required for a nonlinear phase shift of π/2, and the maximum propagation distance are evaluated for the semiconductors GaAs and InSb in four guided wave geometries: surface plasmons at the interface between two semi‐infinite media and guided by a thin metal film, and single and multilayer thin‐film optical waveguides. Optimum configurations compatible with guided wave technology are identified.
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42.65.-k Nonlinear optics
42.82.-m Integrated optics
71.36.+c Polaritons (including photon-phonon and photon-magnon interactions)
78.66.Bz Metals and metallic alloys

Thermal‐gradient‐induced optical deflection in TiO2 crystals

Y. Fujii, K. Kajimura, S. Ishihara, and H. Yajima

Appl. Phys. Lett. 41, 217 (1982); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.93488 (3 pages) | Cited 4 times

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A physical interpretation of the novel optical deflection phenomenon is reported with detailed measurements on rutile (TiO2) crystals under both static and pulse electric fields. With a model based on the thermally induced refractive index gradient, the experimental results of deflection angles are successfully explained.
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78.20.N- Thermo-optic effects
78.20.nb Photothermal effects
42.79.Hp Optical processors, correlators, and modulators
42.60.Fc Modulation, tuning, and mode locking

Laser with dynamic holographic intracavity distortion correction capability

Mark Cronin‐Golomb, Baruch Fischer, Joseph Nilsen, Jeffrey O. White, and Amnon Yariv

Appl. Phys. Lett. 41, 219 (1982); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.93489 (2 pages) | Cited 24 times

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We report here a novel laser resonator with the ability to correct for intracavity phase distortions. The optical cavity employs a passive (self‐pumped) phase conjugate reflector to provide this capability.
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42.60.Da Resonators, cavities, amplifiers, arrays, and rings
42.65.-k Nonlinear optics
42.40.My Applications
42.15.Fr Aberrations

Room‐temperature excitonic optical bistability in a GaAs‐GaAlAs superlattice étalon

H. M. Gibbs, S. S. Tarng, J. L. Jewell, D. A. Weinberger, K. Tai, A. C. Gossard, S. L. McCall, A. Passner, and W. Wiegmann

Appl. Phys. Lett. 41, 221 (1982); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.93490 (2 pages) | Cited 114 times

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The quantum wells provided by a superlattice increase the binding energy of the free excitons in GaAs, permitting 300 K bistable operation of a superlattice etalon. The superlattice consists of 61 periods of 336 Å GaAs and 401 Å Ga0.73Al0.27As. The intensities required are about 1 mW/ ( μm)2 and the switching times are 20–40 ns, similar to the low‐temperature pure GaAs values. Room‐temperature operation of semiconductor etalons enhances the likelihood of all‐optical logic and switching.
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42.65.-k Nonlinear optics
71.35.-y Excitons and related phenomena
85.60.-q Optoelectronic devices
42.79.Dj Gratings

Amplification of 70‐fs optical pulses to gigawatt powers

R. L. Fork, C. V. Shank, and R. T. Yen

Appl. Phys. Lett. 41, 223 (1982); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.93474 (3 pages) | Cited 81 times

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We report a technique for amplifying pulses as short as 70 fs to gigawatt power levels while retaining the short duration of the incident pulse. Pulse recompression by a dispersive delay line is used to compensate temporal broadening by group velocity dispersion.
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42.60.By Design of specific laser systems

High‐power, single‐mode operation of an InGaAsP/InP laser with a grooved transverse junction using gain stabilization

T. R. Chen, U. Koren, K. L. Yu, K. Y. Lau, L. C. Chiu, A. Hasson, S. Margalit, and A. Yariv

Appl. Phys. Lett. 41, 225 (1982); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.93475 (4 pages)

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The high‐power performance of a groove InGaAsP/InP transverse junction laser fabricated on a semi‐insulating InP substrate has been investigated. Peak power of over 250 mW/facet for pulsed operation and 11 mW/facet cw are achieved with stable fundamental mode operation and narrow beam width. It is suggested that the single‐mode operation is caused by a gain stabilizing mechanism related to the transverse junction injection profiles.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes

Low threshold, high efficiency Ga1−xAlxAs single quantum well visible diode lasers grown by metalorganic chemical vapor deposition

R. D. Burnham, D. R. Scifres, and W. Streifer

Appl. Phys. Lett. 41, 228 (1982); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.93476 (3 pages) | Cited 38 times

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Laser threshold current density and emission wavelength were investigated for broad area single quantum well double heterostructure (SQW DH) Ga1−xAlxAs lasers grown by metalorganic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD) under pulsed operation at room temperature. The shortest lasing emission wavelength was 7065 Å. At that wavelength, the threshold current density was 1 kA/cm2 for a Fabry–Perot diode of 500‐μm cavity length and the external differential quantum efficiency was 48%. These values are significantly better than those previously reported for Ga1−xAlxAs DH lasers operating under similar conditions at the same wavelengths. We attribute the improved performance in part to the quantum size effect (active layer thickness 400– 600 Å).
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
81.10.Bk Growth from vapor

Fiber‐optical sensor for surface acoustic waves

J. E. Bowers

Appl. Phys. Lett. 41, 231 (1982); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.93477 (3 pages) | Cited 10 times

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A new sensor is presented for detecting surface acoustic waves (SAW). The probe is constructed using single‐mode fiber components (two directional couplers, a polarization controller, and a phase modulator) with a laser diode and detector. This sensor has the advantages of being small and rugged and does not require an optical bench for stability. The sensor can detect acoustic waves over a dynamic range of 110 dB and has better amplitude sensitivity (0.0003 Å) than has been reported for other SAW sensors.
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43.35.Pt Surface waves in solids and liquids
43.35.Sx Acoustooptical effects, optoacoustics, acoustical visualization, acoustical microscopy, and acoustical holography

Highly resolved, monochromatic, x‐ray images of laser‐produced plasmas through the single‐crystal double‐reflection spectrometer

Benjamin S. Fraenkel

Appl. Phys. Lett. 41, 234 (1982); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.93478 (3 pages) | Cited 11 times

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The double‐reflection method is used to produce highly collimated x‐ray spectra, down to less than 0.1 mrad, from laser‐produced plasmas. Thus images of the plasmas are obtained for each wavelength. He‐like and Li‐like transitions from sulfur and titanium are shown. The first results give the different sizes of the volumes in the plasmas emitting the various species of ions.
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52.50.Jm Plasma production and heating by laser beams (laser-foil, laser-cluster, etc.)
42.79.Ls Scanners, image intensifiers, and image converters
42.79.Pw Imaging detectors and sensors
52.70.Kz Optical (ultraviolet, visible, infrared) measurements

Iron nitride and carbonitride phases in a nitrogen implanted carbon steel

C. A. dos Santos, B. A. S. de Barros, J. P. de Souza, and I. J. R. Baumvol

Appl. Phys. Lett. 41, 237 (1982); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.93479 (3 pages) | Cited 26 times

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Iron nitride and carbonitride phases formed during nitrogen implantation and subsequent thermal annealing of a medium‐carbon steel are investigated by means of conversion electron Mössbauer scattering. The results are compared to previous work on similar systems and also discussed in terms of the mechanical properties of ion implanted steels.
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61.72.U- Doping and impurity implantation
76.80.+y Mössbauer effect; other γ-ray spectroscopy
68.35.-p Solid surfaces and solid-solid interfaces: structure and energetics

Formation of metastable supersaturated solid solutions in ion implanted silicon during solid phase crystallization

J. Narayan and O. W. Holland

Appl. Phys. Lett. 41, 239 (1982); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.93480 (4 pages) | Cited 37 times

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We have investigated maximum solubility limits and extended defects in Si‐Sb, Si‐In, Si‐Ga, Si‐Bi, and Si‐As systems after ion implantation and solid phase epitaxial growth in the temperature range 450‐600 °C. The maximum concentration of solutes in ’’defect‐free’’ layers were found to exceed the respective retrograde solubility limits by as much as a factor of 560 in Si‐Bi system. The maximum concentrations depended upon the substrate temperature and the ion current during implantations, which presumably affected the degree of amorphousness or free energy of as‐ implanted silicon.
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61.72.U- Doping and impurity implantation
61.80.Jh Ion radiation effects
73.40.Ei Rectification
61.72.J- Point defects and defect clusters

Large area silicon sheet for solar cells

Yasuhiro Maeda and Takashi Yokoyama

Appl. Phys. Lett. 41, 242 (1982); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.93481 (3 pages)

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Polycrystalline silicon sheets having a 6‐in. or 4‐in. diameter with a 0.3–0.4‐mm thickness have been obtained directly by spinning the silicon melt dropped on the plate. Production time of the sheet formation from the melt is about one second per sheet. The crystallites of the sheet have columnar structures. Material loss in the production process is little or none because of a clean recovery of the surplus silicon. Using this sheet, p‐n junction solar cells with an AM1 efficiency of 4.1–6.0% have been made experimentally.
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81.10.Fq Growth from melts; zone melting and refining
84.60.Jt Photoelectric conversion
61.50.-f Structure of bulk crystals

Atomic displacements in metals due to low‐energy light ion implantation

H. Bernas and A. Traverse

Appl. Phys. Lett. 41, 245 (1982); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.93482 (2 pages) | Cited 7 times

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Damage production rates due to 3–10‐keV proton and deuteron implantations at 6 K into thin metallic (Ni, Pt, Pd, Ag, Au, Cr) films were deduced from residual resistivity measurements. A simple analytical calculation, taking into account the dominating contribution of electronic stopping and the low recoil energies involved, accounts for the experimental results. It is also directly applicable to low‐energy T and 4He implantation results.
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61.72.U- Doping and impurity implantation
79.20.Rf Atomic, molecular, and ion beam impact and interactions with surfaces

Preparation of x‐ray lithography masks using a tungsten reactive ion etching process

John N. Randall and J. C. Wolfe

Appl. Phys. Lett. 41, 247 (1982); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.93483 (2 pages) | Cited 4 times

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High‐resolution x‐ray lithography masks which use a tungsten absorbing layer were fabricated on polyimide support membranes. The tungsten was patterned with a reactive ion etching process. 70‐nm lines and spaces have been replicated in polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) using carbon K x rays. The process should allow high‐resolution, high‐contrast masks to be made for any wavelength.
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81.20.-n Methods of materials synthesis and materials processing

Breakdown mechanism of buffer layers in vapor phase epitaxial GaAs for metal‐semiconductor field‐effect transistors

Kunihiko Kodama, Masashi Ozeki, and Akihiro Shibatomi

Appl. Phys. Lett. 41, 249 (1982); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.93473 (2 pages)

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Infrared light emission was observed at an edge of a source contact in gateless GaAs metal‐ semiconductor field‐effect transistors (MESFET’s) when a source‐drain voltage was increased to be nearly equal to breakdown voltage. Its wavelength was found to correspond to the band gap of GaAs. This indicates that the emission is from an interface between an active and a buffer layer where a depletion layer is formed. Taking account of this result, a model is presented for breakdown in buffer layers. In this model, an electric‐field concentration at the interface plays an important role. This was experimentally verified.
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85.30.Tv Field effect devices

Defects and impurities in thermal oxides on silicon

K. L. Brower, P. M. Lenahan, and P. V. Dressendorfer

Appl. Phys. Lett. 41, 251 (1982); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.93484 (3 pages) | Cited 50 times

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Oxides grown at 1100 °C in dry oxygen for 60 min to a thickness of 1350 Å on silicon with and without subsequent forming gas anneals were 60Co γ irradiated at 4 K with doses up to 106 rad (Si). In situ electron paramagnetic resonance measurements at 10 K revealed ≊3×1017 atomic hydrogen/cm3 and ∼1017 oxygen‐hole centers/cm3 in the oxide. The paramagnetic dangling bond on the silicon side of the Si/SiO2 interface (Pb center) was also observed. The (relative) concentration of these centers was measured as a function of isochronal annealing between 10 and 300 K.
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73.40.Qv Metal-insulator-semiconductor structures (including semiconductor-to-insulator)
76.30.Mi Color centers and other defects
61.80.Ed γ-ray effects

X‐center formation by neutron irradiation of Ga‐doped float‐zone silicon

John J. Rome, W. C. Mitchel, Gail J. Brown, David W. Fischer, M. C. Ohmer, and T. L. Peterson

Appl. Phys. Lett. 41, 254 (1982); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.93491 (3 pages) | Cited 9 times

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Neutron irradiation of gallium‐doped float‐zone grown silicon has been observed to cause the appearance of the gallium X center. Hall effect, infrared absorption, and photoconductivity (photothermal ionization) were used to reveal its presence. The X center was seen in irradiated samples but not in unirradiated ones under identical annealing conditions. The measured ionization energy of this center agrees well with previously reported data (0.057 eV).
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78.40.Fy Semiconductors
78.30.-j Infrared and Raman spectra
72.80.Cw Elemental semiconductors
61.72.jn Color centers

Measurement of lateral variation of hole diffusion lengths in GaAs

Robert M. Fletcher, D. Ken Wagner, and Joseph M. Ballantyne

Appl. Phys. Lett. 41, 256 (1982); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.93492 (3 pages) | Cited 1 time

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A technique for making rapidly scanned, high spatial resolution minority‐carrier diffusion length measurements in direct band‐gap semiconductor thin films is described. Using optical excitation of carriers through a semitransparent Schottky barrier, the technique is nondestructive, and at the highest resolution of 1 μm, permits measurements over a 100‐μm square area to be made in a matter of minutes. The technique is applied to the investigation of grain boundaries in large‐ grained polycrystalline n‐type GaAs films and is illustrated by measurements over a region containing an electrically active grain boundary. Application of the method for assessment of uniformity of minority‐carrier properties of epitaxial layers is feasible.
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72.20.Jv Charge carriers: generation, recombination, lifetime, and trapping
72.80.Ey III-V and II-VI semiconductors

Synchrotron x‐ray topographic observation of defect evolution at the Si‐ Si3N4 interface

C. Jourdan, J. Gastaldi, J. Derrien, M. Bienfait, and J. M. Layet

Appl. Phys. Lett. 41, 259 (1982); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.93493 (3 pages) | Cited 2 times

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The creation and evolution of linear 〈100〉 defects at the interface of Si3N4 films condensed on Si (100) surfaces are observed by high‐flux x‐ray topography during the annealing of the Si wafer in flowing nitrogen. These defects are sources for tangled dislocations that develop upon further annealing in oxygen. A mechanism of the gettering at the Si3N4‐Si interface is proposed.
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66.30.J- Diffusion of impurities
61.05.C- X-ray diffraction and scattering
68.35.-p Solid surfaces and solid-solid interfaces: structure and energetics
61.72.sd Impurity concentration
61.72.sh Impurity distribution
61.72.sm Impurity gradients

Laser‐induced periodic surface damage and radiation remnants

Jeff F. Young, J. E. Sipe, J. S. Preston, and H. M. van Driel

Appl. Phys. Lett. 41, 261 (1982); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.93494 (4 pages) | Cited 45 times

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We report a detailed experimental study of the periodic surface damage induced by laser irradiation at 1.06 μm on nominally smooth Ge samples; we include novel observations of the damage obtained by studying its optical diffraction pattern, which reveals a previously unappreciated richness in the damage structure. The usual ’’surface scattered wave’’ explanation of the damage is criticized; we argue that the damage results from the electromagnetic fields generated by surface inhomogeneities but that, due to the presence of the interface between vacuum and bulk Ge, these fields are not radiative; these ’’radiation remnants’’ are discussed.
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77.90.+k Other topics in dielectrics, piezoelectrics, and ferroelectrics and their properties (restricted to new topics in section 77)
79.20.Ds Laser-beam impact phenomena
78.30.-j Infrared and Raman spectra
78.40.Fy Semiconductors

CdxHg1−xTe n‐type layers grown by molecular beam epitaxy

J. P. Faurie and A. Million

Appl. Phys. Lett. 41, 264 (1982); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.93495 (3 pages) | Cited 20 times

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CdxHg1−xTe n‐type layers have been grown by molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) on CdTe (111) orientation substrates at growth temperatures between 120 and 180 °C. It is shown, as predicted previously for films grown at 110 °C, that an improvement in structural quality by a substrate temperature raise and growth in a Hg flux is followed by an improvement of electrical properties. For substrate temperature Ts = 180 °C films have low carrier concentration and high electron Hall mobilities close to the best value reported for layers grown by other techniques. These results indicate that MBE is now a promising technique for CdxHg1−xTe device applications.
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81.15.-z Methods of deposition of films and coatings; film growth and epitaxy

Manifestations of melt‐carry‐over in InP and InGaAsP layers grown by liquid phase epitaxy

S. Mahajan, D. Brasen, M. A. DiGiuseppe, V. G. Keramidas, H. Temkin, C. L. Zipfel, W. A. Bonner, and G. P. Schwartz

Appl. Phys. Lett. 41, 266 (1982); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.93496 (4 pages) | Cited 5 times

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Macroscopic evidence for the occurrence of melt‐carry‐over (MCO) in InP and InGaAsP layers, grown by liquid phase epitaxy, is presented. It is shown that MCO can manifest itself in the form of dissolution pits and holes in epilayers. Further, this carry‐over can occur in any stage of epi growth and can propagate through subsequent epitaxial layers. Thus, holes transcending all four layers constituting a device wafer can form if wipe‐off after an In‐melt back is incomplete, and these holes have deleterious effects on device yield.
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61.72.Ff Direct observation of dislocations and other defects (etch pits, decoration, electron microscopy, x-ray topography, etc.)
81.40.Tv Optical and dielectric properties related to treatment conditions
61.72.S- Impurities in crystals
61.72.sd Impurity concentration
61.72.sh Impurity distribution
61.72.sm Impurity gradients

X‐ray photoelectron spectroscopic studies of oxygen chemisorption on thick films of photoconducting cadmium sulfide

D. P. Amalnerkar, S. Badrinarayanan, S. K. Date, and A. P. B. Sinha

Appl. Phys. Lett. 41, 270 (1982); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.93497 (2 pages) | Cited 13 times

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X‐ray photoelectron spectroscopic studies of highly photosensitive thick films of cadmium sulphide have been carried out which reveal the appearance of a complex triplet structure (S2p) spread over about 20 eV with peaks centered at binding energy values of 162.6, 172.8, and 179.7 eV. Using the available literature data, the S2p peak at 162.6 eV is interpreted to originate from S−− ions, the one at 172.8 eV from the SO−−4‐ like species and that at 179.7 eV from SO2‐like species, the latter two being formed on the surface due to the preferential bonding of chemisorbed oxygen with sulphur. After thermal desorption, the films exhibit no photosensitivity and there is a substantial reduction in the intensities of 172.8‐ and 179.7‐eV peaks. A close link between the existence of SO−−4 and SO2 (adsorbed) species and photoconductivity is clearly manifested.
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72.40.+w Photoconduction and photovoltaic effects
73.20.-r Electron states at surfaces and interfaces
82.80.Pv Electron spectroscopy (X-ray photoelectron (XPS), Auger electron spectroscopy (AES), etc.)
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