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1 Jan 1984

Volume 44, Issue 1, pp. 1-150

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Improved AlxGa1−xAs bulk lasers with superlattice interfaces

R. Fischer, J. Klem, T. J. Drummond, W. Kopp, H. Morkoç, E. Anderson, and M. Pion

Appl. Phys. Lett. 44, 1 (1984); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.94588 (3 pages) | Cited 16 times

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A graded superlattice composed of AlxGa1−xAs and GaAs having a total thickness of 150 Å was incorporated on each side of the active layer of an otherwise standard double heterojunction laser. In spite of no optimization, current threshold densities as low as 600 A/cm2 at 880 nm were obtained in broad area devices with 300‐μm cavity lengths. Otherwise identical structures with abrupt heterointerfaces in place of a graded superlattice exhibited current threshold densities in the range 1.2–1.4 kA/cm2. Silicon and beryllium were used for n‐ and p‐type dopants. These results represent the best values for bulk laser and are attributed to improved interfaces primarily that between the bottom confining layer (substrate side) and the active layer.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.60.By Design of specific laser systems
73.40.Lq Other semiconductor-to-semiconductor contacts, p-n junctions, and heterojunctions
85.30.-z Semiconductor devices

Optical heating of electron‐hole plasma in silicon by picosecond pulses

L.‐A. Lompré, J.‐M. Liu, H. Kurz, and N. Bloembergen

Appl. Phys. Lett. 44, 3 (1984); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.94543 (3 pages) | Cited 27 times

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Using a novel three‐pulse technique, essential information about the density, optical effective mass, and kinetics of laser‐generated plasmas in silicon has been obtained.
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72.30.+q High-frequency effects; plasma effects
79.20.Ds Laser-beam impact phenomena
71.35.-y Excitons and related phenomena

Single mode operation of a current pulsed GaAlAs laser with dispersive external feedback

John R. Andrews

Appl. Phys. Lett. 44, 5 (1984); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.94552 (3 pages) | Cited 4 times

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We report the generation of a stable single longitudinal mode in the transient spectrum of a GaAlAs laser diode using dispersive external feedback. The characteristics of the spectral evolution subsequent to a step increase in the drive current can be adequately understood from consideration of temperature induced shift of the gain spectrum and longitudinal modes as a function of time. Operation in a single longitudinal mode is observed from the first few nanoseconds out to steady state for lasers with both index guiding and gain guiding. Over 7 mW of single mode power is observed with an index‐guided laser.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.60.By Design of specific laser systems
42.60.Fc Modulation, tuning, and mode locking

Procedure for electron and ion lens optimization

M. Szilagyi, S. J. Yakowitz, and M. O. Duff

Appl. Phys. Lett. 44, 7 (1984); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.94559 (3 pages) | Cited 4 times

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This letter describes a computational technique for optimal control problems arising in the synthesis of electron and ion lenses. The method provides an effective search algorithm for electrostatic and/or magnetic imaging fields with minimum aberrations. An optimized electrostatic field distribution is given as an example of application.
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29.27.-a Beams in particle accelerators
02.70.-c Computational techniques; simulations
07.78.+s Electron, positron, and ion microscopes; electron diffractometers

Phase noise characteristics of single mode semiconductor lasers with optical feedback

Y. C. Chen

Appl. Phys. Lett. 44, 10 (1984); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.94573 (3 pages) | Cited 7 times

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The phase noise characteristics of single mode semiconductor lasers with optical feedback have been studied. A correlation is found between the suppression of the low‐frequency noise and the enhancement of the high‐frequency noise near the relaxation oscillation frequency. Contrary to previous analyses, the low‐frequency noise is minimized when the reflected light is 70°–90° out of phase with respect to that inside the diode laser cavity. A calculation of the laser frequency fluctuation spectrum, taking into account the amplitude‐phase coupling of the laser field, agrees with the observation. A new explanation is proposed for the feedback‐induced phase noise reduction effect.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.60.Jf Beam characteristics: profile, intensity, and power; spatial pattern formation
72.70.+m Noise processes and phenomena
42.62.-b Laser applications

Longitudinal mode behavior and tunability of separately pumped (GaAl)As lasers

Zu‐Jie Fang and Shyh Wang

Appl. Phys. Lett. 44, 13 (1984); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.94581 (3 pages) | Cited 6 times

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A three‐segment laser, when separately pumped, shows both frequency switching and continuous tuning with a modulation current applied to the middle segment. The wavelength changes are attributed to gain peak shift with the carrier concentration and carrier‐induced index change. A total wavelength change of 61 Å, a continuous tuning range of 4.1 Å, and a tuning rate of −0.74 Å/mA are obtained. The laser may be useful in optical FM fiber communication.
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42.60.Fc Modulation, tuning, and mode locking
42.60.Jf Beam characteristics: profile, intensity, and power; spatial pattern formation
42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes

High‐speed optical modulation with GaAs/GaAlAs quantum wells in a p‐i‐n diode structure

T. H. Wood, C. A. Burrus, D. A. B. Miller, D. S. Chemla, T. C. Damen, A. C. Gossard, and W. Wiegmann

Appl. Phys. Lett. 44, 16 (1984); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.94586 (3 pages) | Cited 183 times

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A new type of high‐speed optical modulator is proposed and demonstrated. An electric field is applied perpendicular to GaAs/GaAlAs multiple quantum well layers using a ‘‘p‐i‐n’’ diode doping structure of 4‐μm total thickness. The optical absorption edge, which is particularly abrupt because of exciton resonances, shifts to longer wavelengths with increasing field giving almost a factor of 2 reduction in transmission at 857 nm with an 8‐V reverse bias. The shifts are ascribed to changes in carrier confinement energies in the wells. The observed switching time of 2.8 ns is attributed to RC time constant and instrumental limitations only, and fundamental limits may be much faster.
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42.79.Hp Optical processors, correlators, and modulators
78.20.Jq Electro-optical effects
71.35.-y Excitons and related phenomena

Silicon photodetector integrated on a lithium tantalate substrate

R. E. Reedy and S. H. Lee

Appl. Phys. Lett. 44, 19 (1984); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.94587 (3 pages) | Cited 5 times

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We report the fabrication of metal‐oxide‐semiconductor field‐effect transistors (MOSFET’s) in laser recrystallized silicon films on a lithium tantalate substrate with an intervening silicon dioxide layer. Deposited polycrystalline silicon films were irradiated with a scanning focused argon ion laser beam which caused melting and subsequent crystallization of the silicon film into crystallites suitable for MOSFET fabrication. Melting and recrystallization of the silicon film without damaging the substrate were accomplished by irradiation with 0.3–0.4 W of argon ion laser power focused to a 50‐μm‐diam spot. Transistor channel mobility was measured to be 50 cm2/Vs. When operated as integrated photodetectors, a responsivity of approximately 0.5 A/W was measured. Theoretical operation of these MOSFET’s as integrated photodetectors is derived and compared to observed operation.
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85.30.Tv Field effect devices
85.60.Gz Photodetectors (including infrared and CCD detectors)

Submicron, vacuum ultraviolet contact lithography with an F2 excimer laser

J. C. White, H. G. Craighead, R. E. Howard, L. D. Jackel, R. E. Behringer, R. W. Epworth, D. Henderson, and J. E. Sweeney

Appl. Phys. Lett. 44, 22 (1984); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.94589 (3 pages) | Cited 15 times

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An F2 excimer laser at 157 nm has been used for the first time as an exposure source for high resolution photolithography. At this short wavelength, conventional glass and quartz mask substrates are opaque, and therefore alkaline‐earth halides and sapphire were used as mask substrates. The masks were patterned by electron beam lithography, and mask features as narrow as 150 nm have been replicated and represent the smallest features yet produced by contact photolithography.
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81.65.-b Surface treatments
42.62.-b Laser applications
42.70.Gi Light-sensitive materials
85.40.Bh Computer-aided design of microcircuits; layout and modeling

Urea optical parametric oscillator

William R. Donaldson and C. L. Tang

Appl. Phys. Lett. 44, 25 (1984); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.94590 (3 pages) | Cited 21 times

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The operation of the first optical parametric oscillator using a urea crystal is reported. Tunable radiation in both the visible and IR was obtained with conversion efficiencies as high as 20%.
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42.65.Dr Stimulated Raman scattering; CARS
42.65.Es Stimulated Brillouin and Rayleigh scattering
42.65.Ky Frequency conversion; harmonic generation, including higher-order harmonic generation

Time‐resolved acoustic pulses generated by 4‐MeV protons stopping in aluminum

G. E. Sieger and H. W. Lefevre

Appl. Phys. Lett. 44, 28 (1984); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.94591 (3 pages) | Cited 2 times

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Time‐resolved acoustic waves generated by pulsed proton beams stopping in aluminum and other solids have been observed. A wide‐band capacitive detector indicates the target surface velocity as a function of acoustic time of flight. The near‐field signal observed traveling in the beam direction is a measure of the initial pressure distribution along the path of the stopping beam. The measured amplitudes and shapes of such signals are consistent with a simple thermoelastic model of sound generation. Such signals have been used to probe a hydrogen implanted layer in aluminum, and to follow the blistering process in real time while an implanted target was annealed in place.
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61.80.Jh Ion radiation effects
79.20.Rf Atomic, molecular, and ion beam impact and interactions with surfaces
62.65.+k Acoustical properties of solids
43.20.Px Transient radiation and scattering

Bistability in coupled cavity semiconductor lasers

N. K. Dutta, G. P. Agrawal, and M. W. Focht

Appl. Phys. Lett. 44, 30 (1984); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.94592 (3 pages) | Cited 10 times

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Experimental results on bistable operation of coupled cavity semiconductor lasers are presented. The light level at the upper and lower states can be controlled by varying the injection current. A model calculation of the coupled cavity laser system shows that the bistability is due to nonlinearities associated with above threshold gain saturation. Our results show that a coupled cavity laser can exhibit bistability at all temperatures and, in addition, the size of the ‘‘hysteresis loop’’ can be easily controlled by varying the injection current. These results are significant for a practical bistable optical device.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.60.Da Resonators, cavities, amplifiers, arrays, and rings

Hysteresis in a low‐pressure argon discharge

Robert L. Merlino and Steven L. Cartier

Appl. Phys. Lett. 44, 33 (1984); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.94593 (2 pages) | Cited 18 times

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Hysteresis in the discharge characteristics of a low pressure (p≂10−4 Torr), magnetized argon plasma column is reported. The hysteresis is associated with sudden jumps in plasma density and discharge current as either the discharge voltage or magnetic field strength is varied. A substantial change in the plasma density profile and the appearance of coherent plasma oscillations are also observed.
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52.80.Sm Magnetoactive discharges (e.g., Penning discharges)
52.35.Py Macroinstabilities (hydromagnetic, e.g., kink, fire-hose, mirror, ballooning, tearing, trapped-particle, flute, Rayleigh-Taylor, etc.)
52.25.Kn Thermodynamics of plasmas
51.50.+v Electrical properties (ionization, breakdown, electron and ion mobility, etc.)

Pulsed laser melting of amorphous silicon layers

J. Narayan and C. W. White

Appl. Phys. Lett. 44, 35 (1984); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.94594 (3 pages) | Cited 53 times

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We have investigated microstructural changes in self‐implanted and arsenic‐ion‐implanted amorphous silicon layers as a function of energy density after pulsed ruby laser irradiation, using cross‐section transmission electron microscopy and Rutherford backscattering. In specimens irradiated with energy densities less than that required to cause complete annealing, we have identified two distinct regions; the first one consisting of fine polycrystals and the second one consisting of large polycrystals. The changes in thickness of these two regions as a function of pulse energy density are described. Concomitant changes in arsenic concentration profiles are consistent with diffusion in liquid silicon. From the profile broadening in the large polycrystalline region, the crystal growth velocity was estimated to be 4–6 ms−1.
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79.20.Ds Laser-beam impact phenomena
81.40.Gh Other heat and thermomechanical treatments

High‐performance, focusing‐type, time‐of‐flight atom probe with a channeltron as a signal detector

Toshio Sakurai, T. Hashizume, and A. Jimbo

Appl. Phys. Lett. 44, 38 (1984); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.94542 (3 pages) | Cited 9 times

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We have constructed a focusing‐type, time‐of‐flight atom probe which enables us to focus the ion beam to a spot of ∼1 mm diameter. Under this condition, a channeltron can be used as a signal detector replacing the conventional channel plate. Practically 100% detection efficiency was achieved for the first time in the atom‐probe history.
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07.78.+s Electron, positron, and ion microscopes; electron diffractometers
41.75.Ak Positive-ion beams
41.75.Cn Negative-ion beams

Surface segregation and diffusion kinetics study of a Pt‐Ir alloy using the time‐of‐flight atom‐probe field ion microscope

M. Ahmad and T. T. Tsong

Appl. Phys. Lett. 44, 40 (1984); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.94544 (3 pages) | Cited 8 times

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Two absolute composition depth profiles of single atomic layer depth resolution have been obtained for the (001) surface of a Pt‐20% Ir alloy. Pt segregates only to the top two surface layers. A feature of a diffusion kinetic effect has also been observed from which diffusion parameters of alloy species in the near surface layers are estimated.
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64.75.-g Phase equilibria
66.30.Ny Chemical interdiffusion; diffusion barriers
68.60.-p Physical properties of thin films, nonelectronic

New electron trap in p‐type Czochralski silicon

B.‐Y. Mao, J. Lagowski, and H. C. Gatos

Appl. Phys. Lett. 44, 42 (1984); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.94545 (3 pages) | Cited 3 times

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A new electron trap (acceptor level) was discovered in p‐type Czochralski (CZ) silicon by current transient spectroscopy. The behavior of this trap was found to be similar to that of the oxygen thermal donors; thus, 450 °C annealing increases the trap concentration while high‐temperature annealing (1100–1200 °C) leads to the virtual elimination of the trap. The new trap is not observed in either float‐zone or n‐type CZ silicon. Its energy level depends on the group III doping element in the sample. These findings suggest that the trap is related to oxygen, and probably to the acceptor impurity as well.
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78.40.Fy Semiconductors
81.40.Ef Cold working, work hardening; annealing, post-deformation annealing, quenching, tempering recovery, and crystallization

Ion mixing of markers in SiO2 and Si

A. J. Barcz, B. M. Paine, and M‐A. Nicolet

Appl. Phys. Lett. 44, 45 (1984); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.94546 (3 pages) | Cited 17 times

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The amount of atomic mixing in amorphous SiO2 and Si is studied by measuring the redistribution of thin metal markers due to irradiation with 300‐keV Xe+ ions. In SiO2, the mixing efficiency appears to be independent of the chemical nature of marker atoms and can be explained in terms of a linear cascade model. In Si, the mixing is found to correlate with thermally activated diffusivities of the marker species.
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61.72.sd Impurity concentration
61.72.sh Impurity distribution
61.72.sm Impurity gradients
61.80.Jh Ion radiation effects
66.30.J- Diffusion of impurities

Structural evolution of very thin silicon oxide films during thermal growth in dry oxygen

B. Agius, S. Rigo, F. Rochet, M. Froment, C. Maillot, H. Roulet, and G. Dufour

Appl. Phys. Lett. 44, 48 (1984); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.94547 (3 pages) | Cited 17 times

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We have studied the structural characteristics of very thin silicon oxide films thermally grown (at 930 °C, 10 Torr) in 18O enriched dry oxygen for times ranging from 0.5 to 22.5 h (corresponding to equivalent thicknesses ranging from 3.2 to 20.8 nm). Chemical etching combined with nuclear microanalysis, x‐ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), and reflection high‐energy electron diffraction (RHEED) has been applied to the samples. A layer that is very slow to dissolve (of equivalent thickness ∼1.1 nm) was observed for oxide films grown for oxidation times of less than 1 h (equivalent thicknesses under 4.6 nm). As indicated by XPS this layer seems to be related to a structure different from what is observed for thicker films; its existence is also correlated to a structural order as seen by RHEED.
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81.65.-b Surface treatments
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
61.05.jh Low-energy electron diffraction (LEED) and reflection high-energy electron diffraction (RHEED)

Observation of Si2 in a chemical vapor deposition reactor by laser excited fluorescence

Pauline Ho and William G. Breiland

Appl. Phys. Lett. 44, 51 (1984); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.94548 (3 pages) | Cited 33 times

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For the first time an intermediate chemical species, Si2, has been observed in the gas phase during the chemical vapor deposition of silicon from silane. This observation is inconsistent with previous theoretical models for silicon deposition, which assume that either thermodynamic equilibrium or surface kinetics determines the silicon deposition rate. It is consistent with the predictions of a new model for chemical vapor deposition by Coltrin et al., in which gas phase chemical kinetics play an important role in the deposition mechanism. The Si2 molecule could be a precursor to the nucleation of silicon particulates in the gas phase.
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81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
82.80.Dx Analytical methods involving electronic spectroscopy
82.80.Ej X-ray, Mössbauer, and other γ-ray spectroscopic analysis methods

Scaling relations in the equation of state, thermal expansion, and melting of metals

Francisco Guinea, James H. Rose, John R. Smith, and John Ferrante

Appl. Phys. Lett. 44, 53 (1984); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.94549 (3 pages) | Cited 42 times

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A simple and yet quite accurate prediction of volume as a function of pressure for metals and alloys is presented. Thermal expansion coefficients and melting temperatures are predicted by simple, analytic expressions and results compare favorably with experiment for a broad range of metals. All of these predictions are made possible by the discovery of universality in binding energy relations for metals.
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64.30.-t Equations of state of specific substances
65.40.De Thermal expansion; thermomechanical effects

Blocking of threading dislocations by Hg1−xCdxTe expitaxial layers

T. W. James and R. E. Stoller

Appl. Phys. Lett. 44, 56 (1984); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.94550 (3 pages) | Cited 17 times

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The process by which threading dislocations present in the substrate are bent into the interface plane during epitaxial layer growth and thus are blocked from propagating into the epitaxial layer has been observed in growth of the II‐VI ternary alloy Hg1−xCdxTe on CdTe and Cd1−zZnzTe substrates. Stereo‐pair transmission electron micrographs were analyzed which clearly revealed the interfacial dislocations to be in a planar network, as has been previously reported for III‐V epitaxial systems in which the blocking mechanism has been identified by other investigators. Additional evidence of the blocking phenomenon has been provided by chemical dislocation‐revealing etching, which verified that the substrate dislocations were not present in the layer.
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68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
61.72.Ff Direct observation of dislocations and other defects (etch pits, decoration, electron microscopy, x-ray topography, etc.)

Photothermal spectroscopy using a pyroelectric thin‐film detector

H. Coufal

Appl. Phys. Lett. 44, 59 (1984); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.94551 (3 pages) | Cited 81 times

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The application of pyroelectric thin‐film transducers for photothermal studies is described. The sensitivity and versatility of pyroelectric detection are demonstrated by spectroscopic studies of neodymium oxide doped poly (methyl methacrylate) films. At energy fluences of less than 10 mJ/cm2, sensitivities of 1014 molecules/cm2 are achieved with a conventional amplitude modulated light source as well as with a pulsed laser. A detector response time of less than 100 ns is observed with pulsed excitation.
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05.70.Ce Thermodynamic functions and equations of state
77.70.+a Pyroelectric and electrocaloric effects
79.20.Ds Laser-beam impact phenomena
77.55.-g Dielectric thin films

Hydrogen content of thermally nitrided thin silicon dioxide films

F. H. P. M. Habraken, E. J. Evers, and A. E. T. Kuiper

Appl. Phys. Lett. 44, 62 (1984); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.94553 (3 pages) | Cited 18 times

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The hydrogen content of thermally nitrided silicon dioxide films (20–120 nm thick) was measured by means of the resonant nuclear reaction 1W(15N, αγ)12C. Although the hydrogen concentration in these films amounts to 1–3 at. %, no significant diffusion of hydrogen into the underlying silicon was observed. The hydrogen concentration is largest in the thinnest oxide films: nitridation at 1000 °C results in a higher hydrogen content than at 800 or 1160 °C. Although the exact shape of the in‐depth hydrogen profile, especially in the surface and interface regions, could not be clearly resolved, the detected amount of incorporated hydrogen is such that only part of it can be bonded to nitrogen atoms. Hydrogen must also be incorporated as water, molecular hydrogen, Si–H or O–H groups, a fact which must play a role in the observed changes in electrical behaviour upon nitridation of thin silicon dioxide films.
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68.60.-p Physical properties of thin films, nonelectronic
73.61.Ng Insulators
82.30.Nr Association, addition, insertion, cluster formation
66.30.J- Diffusion of impurities

Poling behavior of polyvinylidene fluoride at room temperature

F. I. Mopsik and A. S. DeReggi

Appl. Phys. Lett. 44, 65 (1984); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.94554 (3 pages) | Cited 16 times

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The electrical polarization distribution for biaxially oriented polyvinylidene fluoride poled at room temperature was measured by means of the thermal pulse experiment. The evolution of the distribution as a function of poling field and poling time was studied. The resolution was one‐tenth the sample thickness. In addition, the sample poled to the highest field was reverse poled to successively higher fields to study the effects of field reversal. The film was found to pole easiest in the middle regions implying a higher coercive field near the surfaces.
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77.22.Ej Polarization and depolarization
77.70.+a Pyroelectric and electrocaloric effects
33.15.Kr Electric and magnetic moments (and derivatives), polarizability, and magnetic susceptibility
36.20.-r Macromolecules and polymer molecules
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