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1 Dec 1985

Volume 47, Issue 11, pp. 1125-1233

Page 1 of 2 Pages Next Page | Jump to Page

Current induced periodic ferroelectric domain structures in LiNbO3 applied for efficient nonlinear optical frequency mixing

A. Feisst and P. Koidl

Appl. Phys. Lett. 47, 1125 (1985); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.96349 (3 pages) | Cited 58 times

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Periodic laminar ferroelectric domain superstructures in chromium‐doped LiNbO3 have been grown by modulating the bias current during Czochralski growth. Periodic domain patterns stacked along the y axis with domain thicknesses as low as 8 μm have been prepared. The alternating sign of the effective nonlinear optical (nlo) coefficient enables efficient frequency mixing independent of the constraints of birefringence. This is demonstrated by realizing frequency doubling of 1.06‐μm YAG : Nd laser radiation using the largest nlo coefficient, d33. For domain thicknesses equal to an odd multiple of the coherence length, d=(2m+1)lc, the second harmonic intensity varies as the square of the domain number. For the optimum case, d=lc, an improvement of the nlo efficiency, as compared to the 90° phase‐matched process, by the factor [(2/π)d33/d31]2=15 is inferred.
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42.65.Dr Stimulated Raman scattering; CARS
42.65.Es Stimulated Brillouin and Rayleigh scattering
42.65.Ky Frequency conversion; harmonic generation, including higher-order harmonic generation
81.10.Fq Growth from melts; zone melting and refining
77.80.Dj Domain structure; hysteresis
42.70.-a Optical materials

Semi‐insulator‐embedded InGaAsP/InP flat‐surface buried heterostructure laser

K. Tanaka, M. Hoshino, K. Wakao, J. Komeno, H. Ishikawa, S. Yamakoshi, and H. Imai

Appl. Phys. Lett. 47, 1127 (1985); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.96350 (3 pages) | Cited 11 times

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A new structure semi‐insulator‐embedded flat‐surface buried heterostructure 1.3 μm InGaAsP/InP laser has been developed using chloride vapor phase epitaxy. cw threshold currents as low as 18 mA and high‐temperature cw operation up to 100 °C have been obtained. Small‐signal response above 4 GHz has been achieved and no remarkable roll‐off has been observed, which is due to small parasitic capacitance.
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42.60.By Design of specific laser systems
42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.60.Fc Modulation, tuning, and mode locking

High‐speed monolithically integrated GaAs photoreceiver using a metal‐semiconductor‐metal photodiode

M. Ito, T. Kumai, H. Hamaguchi, M. Makiuchi, K. Nakai, O. Wada, and T. Sakurai

Appl. Phys. Lett. 47, 1129 (1985); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.96351 (3 pages) | Cited 4 times

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A planar monolithically integrated GaAs photoreceiver involving a transimpedance preamplifier has been fabricated using a metal‐semiconductor‐metal (MSM) photodiode. The present MSM photodiode showed a small capacitance of 0.14 pF, which is much smaller than in conventional p‐i‐n photodiodes, and a high‐speed pulse response exhibiting a rise time of 300 ps was demonstrated. It is shown that an MSM photodiode is suitable for monolithic integration due not only to the simple process but also because of its high‐speed operation.
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85.60.Dw Photodiodes; phototransistors; photoresistors
85.60.Gz Photodetectors (including infrared and CCD detectors)
42.82.-m Integrated optics
42.79.Sz Optical communication systems, multiplexers, and demultiplexers

Vibration resistance, short coherence length operation, and mode‐locked pumping in passive phase conjugate mirrors

Mark Cronin‐Golomb, Joel Paslaski, and Amnon Yariv

Appl. Phys. Lett. 47, 1131 (1985); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.96352 (3 pages) | Cited 12 times

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Because the ring and semilinear passive phase conjugate mirrors use dynamic transmission holograms, they are insensitive to vibration and may be pumped with light of short coherence length or with picosecond mode‐locked laser light. Experimental demonstrations of these modes of operation are described.
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42.15.Eq Optical system design
42.79.Bh Lenses, prisms and mirrors
42.87.-d Optical testing techniques
42.79.Dj Gratings
42.65.-k Nonlinear optics

High power cw operation of phased array diode lasers with diffraction limited output beam

D. F. Welch, D. Scifres, P. Cross, H. Kung, W. Streifer, R. D. Burnham, J. Yaeli, and T. L. Paoli

Appl. Phys. Lett. 47, 1134 (1985); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.96353 (3 pages) | Cited 18 times

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Phased array diode lasers have been operated emitting predominantly in a single diffraction limited beam with full width at half‐maximum of 0.8° in pulsed operation and 0.7° in cw operation and output power of 420 and 350 mW, respectively. The current in these lasers is confined to periodic stripes that are offset by a half period at two positions along the laser. In addition, the stripe width varies monotonically across the device while holding the period constant. The single lobed, far‐field pattern occurs at 4° off the facet normal and suggests operation in the lowest order supermode of the asymmetric array.
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42.60.By Design of specific laser systems

Low loss, wavelength tunable, waveguide electro‐optic polarization controller for λ=1.32 μm

R. C. Alferness and L. L. Buhl

Appl. Phys. Lett. 47, 1137 (1985); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.96354 (3 pages) | Cited 8 times

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We propose and demonstrate a new low loss Ti:LiNbO3 waveguide electro‐optic polarization controller for λ=1.32 μm. The device provides general polarization transformations, is wavelength tunable, and has a total fiber device fiber insertion loss of 2.2 dB.
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42.79.Gn Optical waveguides and couplers
42.25.Ja Polarization
78.20.Jq Electro-optical effects

Optically pumped laser oscillation at 3.82 μm from InAs1−xSbx grown by molecular beam epitaxy on GaSb

J. P. van der Ziel, T. H. Chiu, and W. T. Tsang

Appl. Phys. Lett. 47, 1139 (1985); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.96355 (3 pages) | Cited 8 times

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Molecular beam epitaxy has been used to grow InAs1−xSbx active layers on GaSb substrates. Lattice matches of better than 10−3 were obtained with x≂0.09. Index waveguiding of the relatively low refractive index InAs1−xSbx is obtained by using an adjacent GaSb guiding layer and a lower refractive index Al0.5Ga0.5Sb cladding layer. Optically pumped laser emission at 3.82 μm has been observed from 77 to 135 K with a T0=15.9 K.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.60.Da Resonators, cavities, amplifiers, arrays, and rings
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
78.45.+h Stimulated emission

Enhanced modulation bandwidth of GaAlAs double heterostructure lasers in high magnetic fields: Dynamic response with quantum wire effects

Y. Arakawa, K. Vahala, A. Yariv, and K. Lau

Appl. Phys. Lett. 47, 1142 (1985); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.96356 (3 pages) | Cited 14 times

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The modulation bandwidth of GaAlAs double heterostructure (DH) lasers in high magnetic fields is measured. We found that the modulation bandwidth is enhanced by 1.4× with a magnetic field of 20 T. This improvement is believed to result from the increase of the differential gain due to two‐dimensional carrier confinement effects in the high magnetic field (quantum wire effects). A comparison of the experimental results with a theoretical analysis indicates that the intraband relaxation time τin of the measured DH laser in the range of 0.1 to 0.2 ps.
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42.60.Fc Modulation, tuning, and mode locking

cw recombination laser in a flowing negative glow plasma

Jorge J. Rocca

Appl. Phys. Lett. 47, 1145 (1985); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.96357 (3 pages) | Cited 5 times

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cw laser oscillation has been obtained in the 1.43‐μm line of Cd I populated by electron‐ion recombination in the flowing afterglow of a negative glow plasma. The metal vapor in the recombining plasma is produced at room temperature by cathode sputtering. Negative glow plasmas having an electron energy distribution in which energetic beam electrons and supercooled secondary electrons coexist under steady‐state conditions are shown to be an attractive medium for the excitation of cw recombination lasers.
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42.55.Lt Gas lasers including excimer and metal-vapor lasers
52.80.Hc Glow; corona

Strong polarization‐sensitive electroabsorption in GaAs/AlGaAs quantum well waveguides

J. S. Weiner, D. A. B. Miller, D. S. Chemla, T. C. Damen, C. A. Burrus, T. H. Wood, A. C. Gossard, and W. Wiegmann

Appl. Phys. Lett. 47, 1148 (1985); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.96358 (3 pages) | Cited 62 times

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We report the first measurements of perpendicular field electroabsorption (quantum confined Stark effect) in GaAs/AlGaAs quantum wells for light propagating parallel to the plane of the layers. This geometry is well suited for integrated optics. The absorption edge shifts to longer wavelengths with increasing field by as much as 40 meV, giving a modulation depth>10 dB. The strong dichroism present in this geometry is retained even at high fields, making polarization‐sensitive electro‐optical devices possible. We also demonstrate in the waveguide geometry optical bistability due to the self‐electro‐optic effect with 20:1 on/off ratio.
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78.20.Jq Electro-optical effects
75.20.Ck Nonmetals
42.82.-m Integrated optics
42.79.Gn Optical waveguides and couplers

Measurement of population inversions and gain in carbon fiber plasmas

H. Milchberg, C. H. Skinner, S. Suckewer, and D. Voorhees

Appl. Phys. Lett. 47, 1151 (1985); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.96437 (3 pages) | Cited 10 times

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A CO2 laser (∼0.5 kJ energy, 50–80 ns pulse width) was focused onto the end of an axially oriented, thick (35–350 μ) carbon fiber with or without a magnetic field present along the laser‐fiber axis. We present evidence for axial‐to‐transverse enhancement of the C VI 182 Å (n=3–2) transition, which is correlated with the appearance of a population inversion between levels n=3 and 2. For the B=0 kG, zero field case, the maximum gain length product of kl≊3 (k≊6 cm−1) was measured for a carbon fiber coated with a thin layer of aluminum (for additional radiation cooling). The results are interpreted in terms of fast recombination due mostly to thermal conduction from the plasma to the cold fiber core.
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52.25.Os Emission, absorption, and scattering of electromagnetic radiation
52.50.Jm Plasma production and heating by laser beams (laser-foil, laser-cluster, etc.)
32.30.Jc Visible and ultraviolet spectra
42.55.-f Lasers

Photopyroelectric scanning microscopy

I. F. Faria, C. C. Ghizoni, and L. C. M. Miranda

Appl. Phys. Lett. 47, 1154 (1985); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.96359 (3 pages) | Cited 11 times

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A new pyroelectric technique for the thermal wave scanning microscopy is presented. The potentiality of the method for probing and characterizing defects in solid samples is tested for surface and subsurface defects.
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78.20.N- Thermo-optic effects
78.20.nb Photothermal effects
68.37.-d Microscopy of surfaces, interfaces, and thin films
77.70.+a Pyroelectric and electrocaloric effects
66.70.-f Nonelectronic thermal conduction and heat-pulse propagation in solids; thermal waves

Drawing condition dependences of optical absorption and photoluminescence in pure silica optical fibers

Yoshinori Hibino, Hiroaki Hanafusa, and Shigeki Sakaguchi

Appl. Phys. Lett. 47, 1157 (1985); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.96360 (3 pages) | Cited 6 times

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Drawing‐induced absorption at 630 nm and photoluminescence (PL) at 650 nm are investigated for pure synthetic silica optical fibers fabricated under various drawing conditions. It is found that both the absorption peak and the PL intensity increase with increasing drawing tension. These results suggest that the defects responsible for the absorption and the PL are closely related to the nonbridging oxygen defects.
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78.30.Hv Other nonmetallic inorganics
78.40.Ha Other nonmetallic inorganics
78.55.Hx Other solid inorganic materials
81.40.Tv Optical and dielectric properties related to treatment conditions
81.05.Kf Glasses (including metallic glasses)

Fluorescence thermometry of shocked water

B. L. Justus, A. L. Huston, and A. J. Campillo

Appl. Phys. Lett. 47, 1159 (1985); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.96361 (3 pages) | Cited 10 times

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We describe a fluorescence probe thermometer for measuring shock heating directly in transparent solvents. As a demonstration of this scheme, the temperature of shocked water was measured in a previously inaccessible pressure regime, 0–9 kbar, by observing the fluorescence enhancement from a fluorescein dye additive following 527‐nm excitation and laser driven shock loading. A ring‐up shock temperature increase of 33 °C was observed at 8.4 kbar with an accuracy of ±4 °C.
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07.20.Dt Thermometers
33.50.-j Fluorescence and phosphorescence; radiationless transitions, quenching (intersystem crossing, internal conversion)
62.50.-p High-pressure effects in solids and liquids
78.55.Bq Liquids

Channeling studies of InGaAs ternary alloys and InGaAs/InP superlattices grown by metalorganic chemical vapor deposition

T. Haga, T. Kimura, Y. Abe, T. Fukui, and H. Saito

Appl. Phys. Lett. 47, 1162 (1985); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.96362 (3 pages) | Cited 12 times

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The first experimental results of InGaAs ternary alloys and InGaAs/InP superlattices investigated by ion channeling methods are reported. All samples are grown by metalorganic chemical vapor deposition. It is emphasized that the small atomic displacements from virtual crystal points in the ternary alloys have a very important role for dechanneling. Furthermore, it is revealed that the dechanneling fractions along the 〈100〉 directions in the superlattices which have small lattice mismatches (0.1∼0.3%) are not explained by the model of a strained‐layer superlattice, even if the atomic displacements in the ternary alloy layers are taken into account. Main origins of this discrepancy are discussed.
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61.85.+p Channeling phenomena (blocking, energy loss, etc.)
61.66.Fn Inorganic compounds
68.35.-p Solid surfaces and solid-solid interfaces: structure and energetics

Photoacoustic determination of field enhancement at a silver surface arising from resonant surface plasmon excitation

C. S. Jung, G. Park, and Y. D. Kim

Appl. Phys. Lett. 47, 1165 (1985); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.96363 (3 pages) | Cited 3 times

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The field enhancement due to resonant surface plasmon excitation using the attenuated total reflection method is described. For the 500‐Å‐thick silver film evaporated on the flat side of a hemisphere prism, the absorptance and photoacoustic (PA) signal are measured as functions of incident angle for three different incident photon energies. The angle dependence of the field enhancement is obtained from the power absorptance achieved from the PA signal.
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78.66.Bz Metals and metallic alloys
78.20.-e Optical properties of bulk materials and thin films
68.35.Gy Mechanical properties; surface strains
68.35.Iv Acoustical properties
71.45.Gm Exchange, correlation, dielectric and magnetic response functions, plasmons

Growth and characterization of Hg1−xMnxTe grown by molecular beam epitaxy

J. Reno, I. K. Sou, P. S. Wijewarnasuriya, and J. P. Faurie

Appl. Phys. Lett. 47, 1168 (1985); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.96314 (2 pages) | Cited 9 times

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Growth of Hg1−xMnxTe epilayers by molecular beam epitaxy is reported here for the first time. The layers were grown on both CdTe(111) and GaAs(100) substrates. Hall measurements and electron diffraction experiments confirm their high quality. Both n‐type and p‐type layers were grown. The layers exhibited cut‐off wavelengths in the infrared range, thus making them interesting for infrared detector device applications.
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68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
81.15.-z Methods of deposition of films and coatings; film growth and epitaxy
73.61.Cw Elemental semiconductors
73.61.Ey III-V semiconductors
73.61.Ga II-VI semiconductors
73.61.Jc Amorphous semiconductors; glasses
73.61.Le Other inorganic semiconductors
85.60.Gz Photodetectors (including infrared and CCD detectors)

Rate of formation of silicon dioxide; semiconducting ruthenium silicide

F. M. d’Heurle, R. D. Frampton, E. A. Irene, Hao Jiang, and C. S. Petersson

Appl. Phys. Lett. 47, 1170 (1985); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.96315 (3 pages) | Cited 5 times

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The rate of oxide formation over Ru2Si3, a semiconductor with a band gap of about 1 eV, is about as slow as that for Ir3Si5, another semiconducting silicide, and comparable to the rate observed over silicon itself. This is in opposition to what one obtains over metallic silicides where the linear term of oxidation kinetics is at least an order of magnitude greater than that for silicon. Analysis of these contrasting results leads to the conclusion that the enhanced rate over metallic silicides is due to the greater density of states at the Fermi level which facilitates charge transfer between the oxygen atoms and the oxidizing material. The possibility that the rate of oxidation should depend strongly on the metallic or covalent character of the Si bonding appears to be excluded by the fast oxidation rate observed over NiSi2 and CoSi2.
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81.65.-b Surface treatments
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
82.65.+r Surface and interface chemistry; heterogeneous catalysis at surfaces
81.10.Jt Growth from solid phases (including multiphase diffusion and recrystallization)

Optoelectronic properties of Cd1−xZnxTe films grown by molecular beam epitaxy on GaAs substrates

D. J. Olego, J. P. Faurie, S. Sivananthan, and P. M. Raccah

Appl. Phys. Lett. 47, 1172 (1985); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.96316 (3 pages) | Cited 97 times

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Photoluminescence (PL) experiments were carried out at 300 and 12 K to investigate the electro‐optical properties of Cd1−xZnxTe grown by molecular beam epitaxy on GaAs substrates. The compositional dependence of the band‐gap energy was determined. It has a quadratic dependence on x. The near band edge PL spectra at 12 K show free and bound exciton lines for x=0 and 1 and only broadened bound exciton peaks for other compositions. The bound exciton broadenings are quantitatively explained based on the compositional fluctuations of the cations. The PL line shapes give indications of the high quality of the layers.
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78.40.Fy Semiconductors
71.35.-y Excitons and related phenomena
75.20.Ck Nonmetals
78.20.Jq Electro-optical effects

Microwave amplification to 2.5 GHz in a quantum state transfer device

J. M. Pond, S. W. Kirchoefer, and E. J. Cukauskas

Appl. Phys. Lett. 47, 1175 (1985); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.96317 (3 pages) | Cited 10 times

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Reflection amplification has been demonstrated from 40 MHz to 2.5 GHz using a bilevel superlattice structure known as a quantum state transfer device. Measurements of the magnitude and phase of the voltage reflection coefficient were made at 300 K using a specialized microwave probe. The maximum normalized gain, at 40 MHz, approaches the gain expected from dc measurements of the negative differential resistance.
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73.40.Lq Other semiconductor-to-semiconductor contacts, p-n junctions, and heterojunctions
73.61.Cw Elemental semiconductors
73.61.Ey III-V semiconductors
73.61.Ga II-VI semiconductors
73.61.Jc Amorphous semiconductors; glasses
73.61.Le Other inorganic semiconductors
72.20.Ht High-field and nonlinear effects
85.30.De Semiconductor-device characterization, design, and modeling

Study of high electrical field induced degradation of channel response in metal‐oxide‐semiconductor field‐effect transistors using an ac conductance technique

P. D. Chow and K. L. Wang

Appl. Phys. Lett. 47, 1177 (1985); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.96318 (3 pages)

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ac conductance (G) measurements in the frequency domain are used to monitor the degradation of the inversion layer response in metal‐oxide‐semiconductor field‐effect transistors (MOSFET’s) due to high field stressing. The admittance of the conduction channel of the MOSFET’s is analyzed by use of a transmission line model. The time constant which governs the frequency response of the MOSFET inverted channel is extracted from the peak of the G/ω vs ω curve and is shown to be an important and sensitive parameter for studying the degradation of MOSFET interface properties after high field stressing. Measured data on 9 and 35 nm gate oxide MOSFET’s showed that the channel response degradation by high field stressing depends strongly on the gate oxide thickness.
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85.30.Tv Field effect devices
73.40.Qv Metal-insulator-semiconductor structures (including semiconductor-to-insulator)
72.30.+q High-frequency effects; plasma effects
72.20.Ht High-field and nonlinear effects

Grown‐in defects in multi‐epilayer GaAs grown by metalorganic chemical vapor deposition under different growth conditions

Sheng S. Li, D. H. Lee, C. G. Choi, and J. E. Andrews

Appl. Phys. Lett. 47, 1180 (1985); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.96319 (3 pages) | Cited 4 times

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Studies of the grown‐in defects in multi‐epilayer GaAs (with/without a buffer layer) grown by metalorganic chemical vapor deposition under different [AsH3]/[TMGa] ratios, growth temperatures, and growth rates have been made in this letter by the deep level transient spectroscopy method. For samples without a buffer layer, two electron traps with activation energies of Ec−0.83 eV (EL2a) and Ec−0.74 eV are observed, whereas for samples with 6‐μm‐thick buffer layers, only EL2a level is found. The concentration of the deep level traps is found closely related to the [AsH3]/[TMGa] ratio, the growth temperature, and the growth rate (mainly at lower growth rate). The results show that, for samples without a buffer layer, the background dopant density profile is closely related to the deep level trap density profile in the epilayers, whereas for samples with a buffer layer, the profile of background dopant density is less influenced by the presence of the deep level trap.
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68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
78.40.Fy Semiconductors
81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)
73.61.Cw Elemental semiconductors
73.61.Ey III-V semiconductors
73.61.Ga II-VI semiconductors
73.61.Jc Amorphous semiconductors; glasses
73.61.Le Other inorganic semiconductors

Deep level in some perovskite oxides as gas sensor materials

Tsuyoshi Arakawa, Hiroshi Kurachi, and Jiro Shiokawa

Appl. Phys. Lett. 47, 1183 (1985); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.96320 (2 pages) | Cited 1 time

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Deep level in some perovskite oxides ( p type) has been studied by deep level transient spectroscopy (DLTS). One deep hole trap is present in every perovskite oxide. In SmMO3 (M=Cr, Mn, Co) hole traps with activation energy of 0.14 eV for SmCoO3, 0.31 eV for SmMnO3, and 0.22 eV for SmCrO3 were detected, respectively. The DLTS signal disappeared after the treatment in dilute hydrogen at elevated temperatures. The activation energy for a trap level was shown to be close to that derived from the conductivity measurement.
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78.40.Fy Semiconductors
82.47.-a Applied electrochemistry
07.07.Df Sensors (chemical, optical, electrical, movement, gas, etc.); remote sensing

PbSnTe multiple quantum well lasers for pulsed operation at 6 μm up to 204 K

Koji Shinohara, Yoshito Nishijima, Hiroji Ebe, Akihiro Ishida, and Hiroshi Fujiyasu

Appl. Phys. Lett. 47, 1184 (1985); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.96321 (3 pages) | Cited 8 times

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Lattice‐matched PbSnTe‐PbTeSe multiple quantum well lasers fabricated by hot wall epitaxy have been developed. Though the PbSnTe‐PbTeSe system is a type I′ superlattice, by using band bending due to doping, laser operation like type I superlattices has been achieved for the first time. The laser worked well in pulsed operation up to 204 K with 6 μm radiation (cw operation at 130 K with 6.6 μm radiation).
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
73.40.Lq Other semiconductor-to-semiconductor contacts, p-n junctions, and heterojunctions
42.60.By Design of specific laser systems
78.45.+h Stimulated emission

Molecular beam epitaxial growth of tungsten layers embedded in single crystal gallium arsenide

J. P. Harbison, D. M. Hwang, J. Levkoff, and G. E. Derkits

Appl. Phys. Lett. 47, 1187 (1985); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.96322 (3 pages) | Cited 1 time

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We have been able to fabricate structures which consist of a thin (∼10 nm) polycrystalline W film embedded in surrounding single crystalline GaAs by molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) using an electron beam evaporation source to deposit W metal in an ultrahigh vacuum MBE growth chamber. The entire deposition sequence can take place at elevated temperature (625–700 °C) due to the nonreactive nature of W with respect to GaAs. Reflective high‐energy diffraction and transmission electron microscopy indicate that the single crystal GaAs overgrowth proceeds by seeding from the GaAs layer beneath the W through spontaneously occurring perforations in the W layer.
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68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
81.15.-z Methods of deposition of films and coatings; film growth and epitaxy
07.79.Cz Scanning tunneling microscopes
61.05.-a Techniques for structure determination
61.05.jh Low-energy electron diffraction (LEED) and reflection high-energy electron diffraction (RHEED)
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