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15 Aug 1985

Volume 47, Issue 4, pp. 339-435

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Nondestructive depth profiling by spectroscopic ellipsometry

K. Vedam, P. J. McMarr, and J. Narayan

Appl. Phys. Lett. 47, 339 (1985); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.96156 (3 pages) | Cited 54 times

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It is shown that spectroscopic ellipsometry (SE) studies followed by the regression analysis of the SE data can yield information nondestructively and in a nonperturbing manner on the depth profile of multilayer structure; such as (i) quantitative information on the thickness and the dielectric function of each layer, (ii) the structure (whether crystalline or amorphous) as well as the degree of crystallinity of each layer, (iii) characterization of the oxide layer if present on the specimen, and (iv) microroughness of the surface, if present. Furthermore, it is shown that these results are in excellent agreement with the results obtained on the same specimens using cross‐section transmission electron microscopy.
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07.60.Fs Polarimeters and ellipsometers
68.60.-p Physical properties of thin films, nonelectronic
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
75.20.Ck Nonmetals

0° phase mode operation in phased‐array laser diode with symmetrically branching waveguide

M. Taneya, M. Matsumoto, S. Matsui, S. Yano, and T. Hijikata

Appl. Phys. Lett. 47, 341 (1985); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.96157 (3 pages) | Cited 17 times

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An AlGaAs phased‐array laser with a novel index waveguide structure like the letter ‘‘Y’’ is described. In all arrays with such a structure, controllable selection of only 0° phase mode and complete suppression of 180° phase shift mode is achieved up to ∼65 mW in 2%–96% coated devices. The far‐field patterns, near‐field patterns, and spectra of the array are in good agreement with the theoretical results. The cw threshold currents are ∼100 mA, and the external differential quantum efficiencies are 57% per facet.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.60.By Design of specific laser systems

Drawing‐induced 1.53‐μm wavelength optical loss in single‐mode fibers drawn at high speeds

S. Sakaguchi, H. Itoh, F. Hanawa, and T. Kimura

Appl. Phys. Lett. 47, 344 (1985); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.96158 (3 pages) | Cited 3 times

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Optical loss at 1.53‐μm wavelength is observed in silica‐based single‐mode fibers drawn at high speeds. This loss, which is induced by high‐speed drawing, is attributed to silylidyne group absorption. It is found that silica glass fibers occasionally contain hydrogens associated with silicons in addition to hydroxyl groups.
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42.81.-i Fiber optics
42.79.Gn Optical waveguides and couplers
42.25.Bs Wave propagation, transmission and absorption
81.40.Tv Optical and dielectric properties related to treatment conditions

Canceling beam deflection in an acousto‐optic frequency shifter using a self‐pumped phase conjugating mirror

Mark Cronin‐Golomb and Dana Z. Anderson

Appl. Phys. Lett. 47, 346 (1985); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.96159 (3 pages) | Cited 3 times

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A self‐pumped phase conjugating mirror in conjunction with a traveling‐wave acousto‐optic modulator can be used to derive a spatially undisplaced frequency translatable optical beam. One can also obtain a beam consisting of multiple optical frequencies spaced by twice the modulator drive frequency. We find that the appropriate measure of the phase conjugating mirror’s ability to retroreflect a moving optical beam can be its response (writing) time, its memory time, or the ratio of the two, depending on how the beam is moving.
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42.60.Fc Modulation, tuning, and mode locking
43.35.Sx Acoustooptical effects, optoacoustics, acoustical visualization, acoustical microscopy, and acoustical holography
42.65.-k Nonlinear optics
42.79.Hp Optical processors, correlators, and modulators

4×4 Ti:LiNbO3 integrated‐optical crossbar switch array

L. McCaughan and G. A. Bogert

Appl. Phys. Lett. 47, 348 (1985); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.96160 (3 pages) | Cited 13 times

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We have fabricated the largest integrated optical switch array to date—a square array of 16 interconnected Ti:LiNbO3 directional coupler electro‐optical switches. The devices operate at ∼11 V and have 4.6–15‐dB fiber‐device‐fiber insertion loss and extinction ratios from −12 to >−35 dB.
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85.60.-q Optoelectronic devices
42.82.-m Integrated optics
42.81.-i Fiber optics

Infrared to visible image conversion capability of a nematic liquid crystal film

I. C. Khoo and R. Normandin

Appl. Phys. Lett. 47, 350 (1985); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.96429 (3 pages) | Cited 2 times

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We present a theoretical evaluation and experimental results of the capability of a nematic liquid crystal film for infrared to visible image conversion using nondegenerate four‐wave mixing process.
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42.65.-k Nonlinear optics
42.65.Jx Beam trapping, self-focusing and defocusing; self-phase modulation
61.30.-v Liquid crystals
42.79.Ls Scanners, image intensifiers, and image converters
42.79.Pw Imaging detectors and sensors

Low loss optical waveguides fabricated by thermal nitridation of oxidized silicon

David E. Zelmon, Joseph T. Boyd, and Howard E. Jackson

Appl. Phys. Lett. 47, 353 (1985); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.96161 (3 pages) | Cited 14 times

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This letter describes the first optical waveguides fabricated by thermal nitridation of SiO2. This process has allowed us to create layers of silicon oxynitride of about 100‐nm thickness in 4.8‐μm‐thick silicon dioxide layers by exposing thermally oxidized silicon wafers to an ammonia atmosphere for times ranging from one to ten days. Ellipsometric measurements show that the refractive indices of the nitrided layers range from 1.67 to 1.75. Losses for nine optical waveguide samples fabricated with this process range from 0.06 to 0.31 dB/cm.
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42.79.Gn Optical waveguides and couplers
42.82.-m Integrated optics
81.20.-n Methods of materials synthesis and materials processing

Power‐dependent attenuation of nonlinear waves guided by thin films

J. Ariyasu, C. T. Seaton, and G. I. Stegeman

Appl. Phys. Lett. 47, 355 (1985); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.96162 (3 pages) | Cited 7 times

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We show that if one or both of the media bounding a thin film has an intensity‐dependent refractive index, and is also lossy, then the attenuation coefficient for nonlinear waves guided by the film can be very strongly power dependent.
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78.66.-w Optical properties of specific thin films
78.67.-n Optical properties of low-dimensional, mesoscopic, and nanoscale materials and structures
77.55.-g Dielectric thin films
42.82.-m Integrated optics
42.79.Gn Optical waveguides and couplers

High current ion source

Ian G. Brown, James E. Galvin, and Robert A. MacGill

Appl. Phys. Lett. 47, 358 (1985); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.96163 (3 pages) | Cited 119 times

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See Also: Erratum

Show Abstract
We describe a new kind of ion source using a metal vapor vacuum arc as the plasma formation mechanism. The source is simple and reliable and can produce long pulse intense ion beams from any solid electrically conducting material. Using a range of materials from lithium to uranium we have extracted low divergence beams with ion current up to 1 A.
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29.25.Lg Ion sources: polarized
29.25.Ni Ion sources: positive and negative
84.70.+p High-current and high-voltage technology: power systems; power transmission lines and cables
52.50.Dg Plasma sources

High resolution ultraviolet photoablation of SiOx films

C. Fiori and R. A. B. Devine

Appl. Phys. Lett. 47, 361 (1985); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.96164 (2 pages) | Cited 18 times

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The ability of UV laser radiation at 248 nm to cause the photoablation of SiOx films is demonstrated. Given the relatively low doses necessary to ablate significant SiOx thicknesses and the excellent etched wall verticality obtained, it appears that SiOx might be a viable UV photoresist. A brief discussion of the mechanisms leading to SiOx photoablation is presented.
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79.20.Ds Laser-beam impact phenomena
78.30.Hv Other nonmetallic inorganics
78.40.Ha Other nonmetallic inorganics
75.20.Ck Nonmetals
68.60.-p Physical properties of thin films, nonelectronic

Hydrogen profile in ion implanted polyethylene

L. Calcagno and G. Foti

Appl. Phys. Lett. 47, 363 (1985); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.96165 (3 pages) | Cited 6 times

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Change of the hydrogen concentration induced by ion irradiation in the polyethylene films has been studied by MeV proton backscattering. Ion implantation of polyethylene film results in a strong breakup of chemical bonds in the chains with a large hydrogen emission leaving a carbon enriched film.These effects are confined in a cylinder around the ion track, of cross section 10−15 cm2 and a length comparable with the ion range.
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61.80.Jh Ion radiation effects
61.72.sd Impurity concentration
61.72.sh Impurity distribution
61.72.sm Impurity gradients
61.72.U- Doping and impurity implantation

Quantitative photoelastic measurement of residual strains in undoped semi‐insulating gallium arsenide

Masayoshi Yamada

Appl. Phys. Lett. 47, 365 (1985); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.96166 (3 pages) | Cited 19 times

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A new quantitative photoelastic method has been developed to measure residual strains in undoped semi‐insulating (001) GaAs substrates for integrated circuits. The absolute values of the shear strain ‖exy‖ and the difference of the expansion and contraction strains ‖eyy−exx‖ existing in the (001) substrate plane are quantitatively determined by using the present method. Their two‐dimensional distribution maps are demonstrated to exhibit fourfold symmetries rotating 45° to each other. The absolute values are found to be of the order of 10−5 at the substrate edges.
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81.70.-q Methods of materials testing and analysis
78.20.Fm Birefringence
78.20.hb Piezo-optical, elasto-optical, acousto-optical, and photoelastic effects
46.80.+j Measurement methods and techniques in continuum mechanics of solids

Technological applications of scanning tunneling microscopy at atmospheric pressure

R. Miranda, N. García, A. M. Baró, R. García, J. L. Peña, and H. Rohrer

Appl. Phys. Lett. 47, 367 (1985); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.96167 (3 pages) | Cited 24 times

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We present experimental evidence of the capability of the scanning tunneling microscope (STM) to image the microstructure of surfaces with atomic resolution even at atmospheric pressure. Some examples of different types of materials (metal single crystals, graphite, semiconductor, oxide and metal films) are shown. We propose the STM as a highly sensitive standard for surface roughness determination of industrial finishing at atmospheric pressure. In our opinion, these results may open new perspectives in technology and industrial applications.
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73.40.Gk Tunneling
07.78.+s Electron, positron, and ion microscopes; electron diffractometers
68.35.-p Solid surfaces and solid-solid interfaces: structure and energetics
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology

Properties of carbon films by dc plasma deposition

Kazutaka Fujii, Nobuaki Shohata, Masao Mikami, and Masatomo Yonezawa

Appl. Phys. Lett. 47, 370 (1985); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.96168 (3 pages) | Cited 10 times

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Perfectly smooth transparent carbon films deposit onto room‐temperature silicon wafers in a dc plasma of methane (CH4) and hydrogen (H2). Transmission electron microscope analysis reveals that the films consist primarily of amorphous carbon (a‐C). The nearest neighbor C–C bond length of a‐C formed at low discharge current densities or low working pressures approaches that of diamond. Electrical resistivity, calculated using V‐I curves for the Al‐C‐Si structure, is more than 1013 Ω cm. A face‐centered‐cubic phase with a lattice constant of 4.96 Å and diamond, both of which form at relatively high pressures, consist of crystallites having a diameter of about 100 Å.
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68.60.-p Physical properties of thin films, nonelectronic
73.61.Ng Insulators
81.15.Jj Ion and electron beam-assisted deposition; ion plating
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology

Viscosity and steady shocks

William C. Moss

Appl. Phys. Lett. 47, 372 (1985); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.96169 (2 pages) | Cited 1 time

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The dependence of the strain rate on the Hugoniot stress and the effective viscosity is derived for steady wave propagation, by considering the balance between viscous and driving forces in the steady wave. The strain rate in elastic‐plastic solids is shown to vary as the fourth power of the Hugoniot stress, which is in agreement with experimental data.
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62.50.-p High-pressure effects in solids and liquids
46.35.+z Viscoelasticity, plasticity, viscoplasticity

Highly doped GaAs:Si by molecular beam epitaxy

Robert Sacks and H. Shen

Appl. Phys. Lett. 47, 374 (1985); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.96170 (3 pages) | Cited 16 times

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Highly doped (N++) GaAs:Si with n up to 1.8×1019 cm−3 has been grown by molecular beam epitaxy at a ‘‘normal’’ growth rate of ∼0.8 m/h−1. These layers have been studied by Raman spectroscopy, van der Pauw–Hall measurements, and capacitance‐voltage plotting. They show no appreciable surface accumulation or diffusion of donors into low‐doped layers grown on top of them, and thus should be suitable as buffer layers for n/N+ devices as well as aiding in the production of low resistivity ohmic contacts. Resistivity of these layers has a lower limit of 4.75×10−4 Ω cm occurring at about 1.2×1019 cm−3. The possibility of this being an intrinsic lower limit to the resistivity of GaAs is discussed.
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73.61.Cw Elemental semiconductors
73.61.Ey III-V semiconductors
73.61.Ga II-VI semiconductors
73.61.Jc Amorphous semiconductors; glasses
73.61.Le Other inorganic semiconductors
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
61.72.U- Doping and impurity implantation
78.30.Hv Other nonmetallic inorganics

Compensation of p‐type cast polycrystalline silicon by hydrogen ion implantation at 300 °C

S. Martinuzzi, M. A. Sebbar, and J. Gervais

Appl. Phys. Lett. 47, 376 (1985); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.96171 (3 pages) | Cited 9 times

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Hydrogen ion implantation used to passivate grain boundaries and intragrain defects can also compensate p‐type polycrystalline silicon within the implanted surface, when the implantation is done at 300 °C. This compensation may be explained by means of shallow acceptor neutralization.
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61.72.U- Doping and impurity implantation
61.72.sd Impurity concentration
61.72.sh Impurity distribution
61.72.sm Impurity gradients
72.20.Jv Charge carriers: generation, recombination, lifetime, and trapping
72.40.+w Photoconduction and photovoltaic effects

Use of optical emission spectroscopy to study hexafluoroethane reactive ion beam etching of silicon in the presence of oxygen

T. I. Cox and V. G. I. Deshmukh

Appl. Phys. Lett. 47, 378 (1985); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.96172 (3 pages) | Cited 4 times

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By studying the light emission arising from the bombardment of silicon with an ion beam generated from C2F6, we find that emission from excited silicon atoms ejected from the surface is only observed for CF+x ions with energies greater than a threshold value. This is consistent with fragmentation of the CF+x ions on impact and adsorption of the resulting carbon on the silicon surface, thereby preventing the sputtering of silicon atoms. We associated the threshold energy with the appearance of areas of silicon which are free from carbon passivation. Addition of oxygen assists in the removal of this passivating carbon and reduces the observed threshold energies.
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79.20.Rf Atomic, molecular, and ion beam impact and interactions with surfaces
81.65.-b Surface treatments
78.40.Fy Semiconductors
61.80.Jh Ion radiation effects

Hole trapping and interface state generation during bias‐temperature stress of SiO2 layers

S. K. Haywood and R. F. De Keersmaecker

Appl. Phys. Lett. 47, 381 (1985); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.96173 (3 pages) | Cited 13 times

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Avalanche hole injection measurements on unstressed metal‐oxide‐semiconductor capacitors and those having undergone bias‐temperature stress (BTS) are compared. The results show that the negative midgap voltage shift (ΔVmg) occurring during negative BTS is due to filling of intrinsic hole traps. Conversely, positive BTS removes any previously trapped holes from the oxide. No evidence was found for hole trap generation at either stress polarity. Interface state generation across the band gap accompanies hole trapping during negative BTS and a characteristic peak is generated in the interface trap distribution at ∼ 0.2 eV above midgap on neutralization or detrapping of these holes during positive BTS.
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72.20.Jv Charge carriers: generation, recombination, lifetime, and trapping
73.40.Qv Metal-insulator-semiconductor structures (including semiconductor-to-insulator)
73.61.Ng Insulators
77.22.Jp Dielectric breakdown and space-charge effects

Free‐exciton luminescence in GaSb quantum wells confined by short‐period AlSb‐GaSb superlattices

K. Ploog, Y. Ohmori, H. Okamoto, W. Stolz, and J. Wagner

Appl. Phys. Lett. 47, 384 (1985); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.96174 (3 pages) | Cited 10 times

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Photoluminescence and photoluminescence excitation measurements at temperatures ranging from 4 to 300 K were performed on 9.2‐nm GaSb quantum wells confined by AlSb‐GaSb short‐period superlattices. In the temperature range 4–200 K the photoluminescence from the high‐quality molecular beam epitaxially grown samples is dominated by free‐exciton emission. This assignment is confirmed by photoluminescence excitation spectroscopy which reveals an energy separation of 11.5 meV between n=1 heavy‐hole and n=1 light‐hole free excitons for the 9.2‐nm wells. At low temperatures the photoluminescence line is shifted by only 7.5 meV to low energy from the heavy‐hole excitonic peak observed in the excitation spectrum. This small value of the Stokes shift indicates the absence of impurity‐related trapping of excitons.
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78.40.Fy Semiconductors
75.20.Ck Nonmetals
71.35.-y Excitons and related phenomena
71.70.-d Level splitting and interactions

Validation of magnetophonon spectroscopy as a tool for analyzing hot‐electron effects in devices

J. R. Barker, M. Mudares, B. R. Snell, P. S. S. Guimaraes, D. C. Taylor, L. Eaves, and G. Hill

Appl. Phys. Lett. 47, 387 (1985); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.96175 (3 pages) | Cited 2 times

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It is shown that very high precision hot‐electron magnetophonon experiments made on n+n−n+‐GaAs sandwich device structures which are customized for magnetoresistance measurements can be very accurately modeled by a new Monte Carlo technique. The latter takes account of the Landau quantization and device architecture as well as material parameters. It is proposed that this combination of experiment and modeling yields a quantitative tool for the direct analysis of spatially localized very nonequilibrium electron distributions in small devices and low dimensional structures.
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85.30.De Semiconductor-device characterization, design, and modeling
73.40.Lq Other semiconductor-to-semiconductor contacts, p-n junctions, and heterojunctions
72.20.My Galvanomagnetic and other magnetotransport effects
72.20.Jv Charge carriers: generation, recombination, lifetime, and trapping

Laser‐induced photochemical etching of SiO2 studied by x‐ray photoelectron spectroscopy

S. Yokoyama, Y. Yamakage, and M. Hirose

Appl. Phys. Lett. 47, 389 (1985); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.96176 (3 pages) | Cited 13 times

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Thermally grown SiO2 on Si and quartz wafers have been photochemically etched in an NF3 gas containing 0–4 mol % hydrogen by using an ArF excimer laser (193 nm in wavelength) irradiation. In situ x‐ray photoelectron spectroscopy of the etched surface at each step of the photochemical reaction and in situ infrared absorption measurements of the etching gas have revealed the elementary process of etching reactions on the surface and the resulting products in the gas phase.
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81.05.Kf Glasses (including metallic glasses)
81.65.-b Surface treatments
79.20.Ds Laser-beam impact phenomena
82.65.+r Surface and interface chemistry; heterogeneous catalysis at surfaces

Particulates: An origin of GaAs oval defects grown by molecular beam epitaxy

Shang‐Lin Weng, C. Webb, Y. G. Chai, and S. G. Bandy

Appl. Phys. Lett. 47, 391 (1985); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.96177 (3 pages) | Cited 17 times

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We present micrographic evidence that particulates which inadvertently adhere to the wafer surface during substrate preparation result in the formation of oval defects in GaAs layers grown by molecular beam epitaxy (MBE). With elimination of particulate contamination, we simultaneously reduce the total defect density in 1‐μm‐thick GaAs MBE layers from a few thousand to about 300 cm−2. Further evidence indicates that most of these remaining defects also originate from the surface particulates which adhere during the process of wafer transfer and layer growth.
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61.72.J- Point defects and defect clusters
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology

GaInAs(P)/InP quantum well structures grown by gas source molecular beam epitaxy

H. Temkin, M. B. Panish, P. M. Petroff, R. A. Hamm, J. M. Vandenberg, and S. Sumski

Appl. Phys. Lett. 47, 394 (1985); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.96178 (3 pages) | Cited 52 times

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We describe optical properties of single and multiple quantum well structures grown by gas source molecular beam epitaxy. Absorption and photoluminescence were used in conjunction with x‐ray and transmission electron microscopy techniques to determine the confined particle energy levels and well thicknesses. Well defined exciton transitions were observed in the ternary and quaternary well superlattices even above room temperature. In single well structures energy shifts as large as 260 and 370 meV were observed for GaInAs and GaInAsP wells, respectively. On the basis of these results we estimated that over 50% of the InGaAs/InP band discontinuity resides in the conduction band.
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75.20.Ck Nonmetals
78.40.Fy Semiconductors
73.40.Lq Other semiconductor-to-semiconductor contacts, p-n junctions, and heterojunctions

GaAs bipolar transistors grown on (100) Si substrates by molecular beam epitaxy

R. Fischer, N. Chand, W. Kopp, H. Morkoç, L. P. Erickson, and R. Youngman

Appl. Phys. Lett. 47, 397 (1985); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.96179 (3 pages) | Cited 57 times

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We have investigated the properties of GaAs homojunction bipolar transistors grown on (100) oriented Si substrates by molecular beam epitaxy. In a structure with a base thickness of 0.2 μm, a small‐signal common emitter current gain β of about 10 at a current density of 10 kA/cm2 has been obtained. Current densities as high as 105 000 A/cm2 were obtained in these devices without degradation demonstrating the excellent stability of this material. Since the minority‐carrier lifetime is quite sensitive to defects in the base region, these measurements demonstrate the high quality of GaAs on Si substrates. From the collector current dependence of current gain, an ideality factor n=1.5 for the emitter junction was obtained, indicating that space‐charge recombination is an important mechanism in these devices. We also demonstrate that the entire GaAs on Si wafer is phase ordered by observing the orientation effect in the mesa etching. These results show that excellent minority‐carrier properties can be obtained in GaAs on Si epitaxial layers despite the somewhat large dislocation density due to lattice mismatch.
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85.30.Pq Bipolar transistors
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
72.20.Jv Charge carriers: generation, recombination, lifetime, and trapping
72.20.Fr Low-field transport and mobility; piezoresistance
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