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10 Mar 1986

Volume 48, Issue 10, pp. 613-678


Effect of nonlinear gain reduction on semiconductor laser wavelength chirping

T. L. Koch and R. A. Linke

Appl. Phys. Lett. 48, 613 (1986); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.96770 (3 pages) | Cited 74 times

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A simple wavelength chirping formula is presented which includes small nonlinearities in the net gain such as spectral hole burning. The two dominant terms are a laser‐structure‐independent derivative or ‘‘transient’’ chirp and a structure‐dependent ‘‘adiabatic’’ chirp, each with distinctly different lightwave system consequences. The two chirp contributions are indirectly related through their mutual association with relaxation oscillations. Time‐resolved spectral measurements on a number of different laser structures support the results.
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42.60.Fc Modulation, tuning, and mode locking
42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.60.Da Resonators, cavities, amplifiers, arrays, and rings

Frequency locking, quasiperiodicity, and chaos in modulated self‐pulsing semiconductor lasers

H. G. Winful, Y. C. Chen, and J. M. Liu

Appl. Phys. Lett. 48, 616 (1986); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.96771 (3 pages) | Cited 38 times

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A transition to chaos via quasiperiodicity is observed in the output of a directly modulated self‐pulsing semiconductor laser. By sweeping the frequency and amplitude of the current modulation, several frequency‐locked states (Arnol’d tongues) are mapped out directly. Good agreement with the predictions of a rate equation model is obtained.
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42.60.Fc Modulation, tuning, and mode locking
42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes

High resolution infrared diode laser spectroscopy for isotope analysis—Measurement of isotopic carbon monoxide

Peter S. Lee and Richard F. Majkowski

Appl. Phys. Lett. 48, 619 (1986); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.96722 (3 pages) | Cited 8 times

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A tunable infrared diode laser spectroscopic system for stable isotope analysis has been developed. The system uses (1) a tunable single mode PbTe/PbEuSeTe diode laser and (2) a sample cell with dual path length matched to the expected order of relative isotopic spectral intensities. Because of the unique features of such a system, isotopic molecules with similar mass and vastly different concentrations can readily be detected and measured. The principle and operation of the system are described, and the relative abundance of isotopic carbon monoxide 12C16O, 12C17O, 12C18O has been measured for the first time by a tunable diode laser system.
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07.57.Ty Infrared spectrometers, auxiliary equipment, and techniques
82.80.Dx Analytical methods involving electronic spectroscopy
82.80.Ej X-ray, Mössbauer, and other γ-ray spectroscopic analysis methods

Tunable single pass gain in titanium‐activated lithium germanium oxide

G. M. Loiacono, M. F. Shone, G. Mizell, Richard C. Powell, G. J. Quarles, and B. Elouadi

Appl. Phys. Lett. 48, 622 (1986); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.96723 (2 pages) | Cited 7 times

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Laser‐pumped single pass gain measurements were made on crystals of titanium‐activated lithium germanium oxide between about 388 and 524 nm. Gain was observed throughout this spectral region with a peak cross section of about 1.7×10−19 cm2 near 450 nm.
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78.45.+h Stimulated emission
42.55.Rz Doped-insulator lasers and other solid state lasers
42.60.Fc Modulation, tuning, and mode locking
42.55.-f Lasers

Optical properties of thin nematic liquid crystal cells

Shin‐Tson Wu and Uzi Efron

Appl. Phys. Lett. 48, 624 (1986); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.96724 (3 pages) | Cited 45 times

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Optical properties of thin liquid crystal cells are found to deviate significantly from those of thick cells. Results on the liquid crystal thickness dependent phase retardation, effective birefringence, and decay time of thin E‐7 cells are presented. A simple model which is based on the partially disordered surface layers is developed to explain the observed phenomena. The concept of virtually inactive surface layers is introduced.
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75.20.Ck Nonmetals
42.25.Lc Birefringence
68.35.B- Structure of clean surfaces (and surface reconstruction)
61.30.-v Liquid crystals

Point defect kinetics and dopant diffusion during silicon oxidation

D. Mathiot and J. C. Pfister

Appl. Phys. Lett. 48, 627 (1986); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.96725 (3 pages) | Cited 2 times

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Using a full calculation including all the couplings between the dopants and the point defects, we show that the transient effect observed at short times for the influence of oxidation on dopant diffusion in Si cannot be explained by the existence of an energy barrier to the recombination of interstitials and vacancies. We suggest that this transient is due to a transient in the self‐interstitial injection, due to high strains at the early stage of the oxidation, which can relax later through the viscoelastic flow of the oxide.
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66.30.J- Diffusion of impurities
66.30.Dn Theory of diffusion and ionic conduction in solids
81.65.-b Surface treatments
61.72.jd Vacancies
61.72.jj Interstitials

Polydiacetylene single crystal thin films

J. Berrehar, C. Lapersonne‐Meyer, and M. Schott

Appl. Phys. Lett. 48, 630 (1986); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.96726 (2 pages) | Cited 13 times

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A method for obtaining single crystal thin films of polydiacetylenes using electron irradiation is described. Film thickness can be controlled by adjusting the incident electron energy. Typical thicknesses between 100 and 2000 Å for a sample surface of a few tenths of cm2 are easily obtained. Such films may find application in nonlinear optics.
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81.15.-z Methods of deposition of films and coatings; film growth and epitaxy
82.35.-x Polymers: properties; reactions; polymerization
79.20.Kz Other electron-impact emission phenomena
75.20.Ck Nonmetals

Reversible neutralization of boron acceptors by hydrogen in Pd‐SiO2‐Si capacitors

T. L. Fare, I. Lundstrom, J. N. Zemel, and A. Feygenson

Appl. Phys. Lett. 48, 632 (1986); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.96727 (3 pages) | Cited 2 times

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A palladium metal‐silicon dioxide‐silicon (Pd‐MOS) capacitor is used to study the reversible injection and extraction of atomic hydrogen from a p‐type implanted boron layer on an n‐type (1016 phosphorus/cm3) substrate. 0.70±0.03 of the boron acceptors are deactivated by the hydrogen atoms diffusing from the Pd‐SiO2 interface, on through the SiO2 and on into the silicon surface region. It is established that the atomic hydrogen can diffuse through a 10‐nm‐thick thermal SiO2 film. The isothermal uptake and release of atomic hydrogen in the silicon surface are demonstrated. The hydrogen data offer evidence that the boron acceptors and the phosphorus donors form a neutral complex during the processing of the ion implanted boron layer.
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73.20.Hb Impurity and defect levels; energy states of adsorbed species
73.40.Qv Metal-insulator-semiconductor structures (including semiconductor-to-insulator)
66.30.J- Diffusion of impurities
72.20.Jv Charge carriers: generation, recombination, lifetime, and trapping

Control of a natural permeable CoSi2 base transistor

R. T. Tung, A. F. J. Levi, and J. M. Gibson

Appl. Phys. Lett. 48, 635 (1986); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.96728 (3 pages) | Cited 79 times

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We report results on the fabrication of a natural permeable base transistor in a Si/CoSi2/Si heterostructure using molecular beam epitaxy (MBE). No photolithography is required, the transistor action being controlled by MBE growth conditions through the density and size of natural openings in the silicide base. The electrical characteristics of devices processed from such heterostructures are intimately related to the presence of these openings. Common base current gains in the range 0.01–0.95 have been observed and correlated with the size and density of the openings.
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85.30.De Semiconductor-device characterization, design, and modeling
81.15.Hi Molecular, atomic, ion, and chemical beam epitaxy
73.40.Vz Semiconductor-metal-semiconductor structures

Photosensitive capacitance‐voltage characteristics of molecular beam epitaxially grown GaAs/AlGaAs/GaAs heterostructures

Q‐D. Qian, M. R. Melloch, and J. A. Cooper

Appl. Phys. Lett. 48, 638 (1986); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.96729 (3 pages) | Cited 4 times

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We report photosensitive capacitance‐voltage characteristics of n+‐GaAs/Al0.3Ga0.7As/p‐GaAs heterostructures grown by molecular beam epitaxy. Inversion layers are observed due to minority charge retention in the triangular potential well at the AlGaAs/p‐GaAs interface. Details of the device structure and experimental evaluation utilizing capacitance‐voltage and current‐voltage techniques are presented.
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73.40.Lq Other semiconductor-to-semiconductor contacts, p-n junctions, and heterojunctions
73.61.Cw Elemental semiconductors
73.61.Ey III-V semiconductors
73.61.Ga II-VI semiconductors
73.61.Jc Amorphous semiconductors; glasses
73.61.Le Other inorganic semiconductors
85.30.De Semiconductor-device characterization, design, and modeling

Si film as an annealing cap for Si‐implanted GaAs

Tae Earn Shim, Tadatsugu Itoh, Yasuhiro Yamamoto, and Setsu Suzuki

Appl. Phys. Lett. 48, 641 (1986); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.96730 (3 pages) | Cited 8 times

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A Si film formed by vacuum deposition as an annealing cap for a Si‐implanted GaAs substrate has been studied. GaAs substrates implanted with 3×1013 Si ions/cm2 at 100 keV were furnace annealed with Si caps at temperatures between 750 and 900 °C for 15 min. The existence of Ga and/or As atoms in the Si cap film was not detected in the Rutherford backscattering spectra of the Si films after annealing. The differential Hall measurement showed that the carrier concentration profile distributed within the ion implanted region. The Si cap film has feasible characteristics for annealing of Si‐implanted GaAs.
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68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
68.55.Ln Defects and impurities: doping, implantation, distribution, concentration, etc.
81.40.Ef Cold working, work hardening; annealing, post-deformation annealing, quenching, tempering recovery, and crystallization
72.20.Jv Charge carriers: generation, recombination, lifetime, and trapping

Tunneling through narrow‐gap semiconductor barriers

J. Heremans, D. L. Partin, P. D. Dresselhaus, and B. Lax

Appl. Phys. Lett. 48, 644 (1986); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.96731 (3 pages) | Cited 17 times

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Tunneling probability calculations through the gap of narrow‐gap semiconductors reveal that a large increase in current density near zero bias can be expected when electrons tunnel near the top of the valence band, or conversely holes near the bottom of the conduction band. This effect is obtained by extending the nonparabolic relativistic dispersion relation into the gap to describe the imaginary electron wave vector k which is used in the Wentzel–Kramers–Brillouin calculation. The effect is not limited to that case because it is due to the fact that at the band edges the wave vector goes to zero, or to a Brillouin zone edge k0 value. A double heterojunction device is proposed in Pb1−zSnzTe to illustrate this property, and the tunneling current through it fully modeled. Under a bias voltage applied to the semiconductor, electrons are forced away from the valence‐band edge. The tunneling probability is then decreased, because k is larger and a negative resistance is expected.
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73.40.Gk Tunneling
73.40.Ty Semiconductor-insulator-semiconductor structures
73.40.Lq Other semiconductor-to-semiconductor contacts, p-n junctions, and heterojunctions

Dependence of grain size on the substrate temperature of Si and Ge films prepared by evaporation under ultrahigh vacuum

R. Tsu, J. Gonzalez‐Hernandez, S. S. Chao, and D. Martin

Appl. Phys. Lett. 48, 647 (1986); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.96732 (3 pages) | Cited 11 times

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Silicon and germanium films were evaporated in ultrahigh vacuum at substrate temperatures ranging from 0 to 600 °C, and this was followed by high‐temperature annealing. The grain size of the annealed microcrystalline samples was measured by transmission electron microscopy. The maximum grain size occurs when the substrate temperature is in the range in which the deposited film changes from the amorphous to the crystalline state. Results have been analyzed on the basis of the competition between two nucleation mechanisms, one with and the other without foreign species present.
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68.55.Ln Defects and impurities: doping, implantation, distribution, concentration, etc.
81.40.-z Treatment of materials and its effects on microstructure, nanostructure, and properties
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology

Existence of metastable step density distributions on GaAs(100) surfaces and their consequence for molecular beam epitaxial growth

P. Chen, A. Madhukar, J. Y. Kim, and T. C. Lee

Appl. Phys. Lett. 48, 650 (1986); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.96733 (3 pages) | Cited 19 times

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Variations in the static and steady‐state specular beam intensity (I0 and IS, respectively) in reflection high‐energy electron diffraction from GaAs(100) have been examined as a function of substrate temperature (TS) and As4 pressure in molecular beam epitaxy. At a fixed As4 pressure, regimes of reversible and irreversible behavior of I0 and IS as a function of TS are identified. The irreversible regime of I0 is shown to occur at temperatures close to the congruent temperature. At each temperature in this regime, the existence of smoothest, but metastable, surface step density configuration is demonstrated. The maximum in IS is found to occur in this regime. The surface kinetic processes responsible for this behavior are discussed.
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68.35.B- Structure of clean surfaces (and surface reconstruction)
61.05.jh Low-energy electron diffraction (LEED) and reflection high-energy electron diffraction (RHEED)
81.15.Hi Molecular, atomic, ion, and chemical beam epitaxy

Photoreflectance study of GaAs/AlAs superlattices: Fit to electromodulation theory

H. Shen, P. Parayanthal, Fred H. Pollak, Micha Tomkiewicz, T. J. Drummond, and J. N. Schulman

Appl. Phys. Lett. 48, 653 (1986); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.97021 (3 pages) | Cited 53 times

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The photoreflectance (PR) spectra of several GaAs/AlAs superlattices have been measured at 300 and 77 K using monochromatic light sources (laser or monochromator) as a secondary (pump) beam, thus enabling us to study the wavelength dependence of the PR. We demonstrate for the first time that electromodulation spectra from superlattices can be fit by a third derivative functional line shape, thus making it possible to precisely determine energies, broadening parameters, amplitudes, and phases of the spectral features. This result greatly enhances the usefulness of electromodulation to study and characterize these structures. The wavelength dependence of the PR shows that there is more than one PR mechanism in superlattices, in contrast to bulk material.
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78.20.Jq Electro-optical effects
71.20.Nr Semiconductor compounds
71.20.Ps Other inorganic compounds
68.65.-k Low-dimensional, mesoscopic, nanoscale and other related systems: structure and nonelectronic properties

Deep donor model for the persistent photoconductivity effect

Harold P. Hjalmarson and T. J. Drummond

Appl. Phys. Lett. 48, 656 (1986); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.96734 (3 pages) | Cited 77 times

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It is proposed that a persistent photoconductivity (PPC) effect is universally produced by deep donors. The general requirements of a class of models which explains the PPC effect in semiconductors are discussed. In particular, donor dopants such as Si and Te in Ga1−xAlxAs with x∼0.3 are conjectured to be deep and responsible for the PPC effect attributed to DX centers consisting of donor‐vacancy pairs. It is shown that the Si donor has properties which explain the known data attributed to the DX center; these data include (1) the slow capture rate at low temperatures, (2) the thermally activated capture rate at high temperatures, and (3) the shape of the photoexcitation cross section. However, in contrast with the DX‐center model, the deep donor model does not require a high trapped vacancy concentration ([V]∼1018 cm−3) to explain the PPC effect in highly doped semiconductors.
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72.40.+w Photoconduction and photovoltaic effects
78.40.Fy Semiconductors
61.72.sd Impurity concentration
61.72.sh Impurity distribution
61.72.sm Impurity gradients
61.72.U- Doping and impurity implantation

Using focused ion beam damage patterns to photoelectrochemically etch features in III‐V materials

K. D. Cummings, L. R. Harriott, G. C. Chi, and F. W. Ostermayer

Appl. Phys. Lett. 48, 659 (1986); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.96735 (3 pages) | Cited 13 times

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A method of patterning n‐type GaAs, InP, InGaAs, and InGaAsP by photoelectrochemical (PEC) etching in conjunction with a submicron focused ion beam (FIB) at low dose is described. The ion beam is used to produce damage in a desired pattern in the material. Subsequent PEC etching of the material reveals the ion induced features in relief. The procedure is highly sensitive, requiring a dose of only 5×109 ions/cm2 for the differential etch to become apparent. The sensitivity allows rapid pattern generation in our FIB system.
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81.65.-b Surface treatments
61.80.Jh Ion radiation effects
79.20.Rf Atomic, molecular, and ion beam impact and interactions with surfaces
82.50.-m Photochemistry

Amphoteric defects at the Si‐SiO2 interface

S. T. Chang, J. K. Wu, and S. A. Lyon

Appl. Phys. Lett. 48, 662 (1986); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.96736 (3 pages) | Cited 43 times

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We have investigated the defects generated at the Si‐SiO2 interface by x‐ray irradiation and Fowler–Nordheim tunneling. When the positive charge trapped in the SiO2 after tunneling at low temperature is annihilated by photoinjected electrons, equal numbers of acceptorlike and donorlike interface states form. One interface state of each type is produced for each trapped positive charge. Similarly, if some interface states are allowed to form after x‐ray irradiation, and then the remaining trapped holes are eliminated by photoinjecting electrons at 90 K, equal numbers of acceptorlike and donorlike interface states remain. The data indicate that each trapped positive charge can produce a single amphoteric center, probably a trivalent silicon interfacial defect. These defects account for all of the interface states observed in this study.
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73.40.Qv Metal-insulator-semiconductor structures (including semiconductor-to-insulator)
73.61.Ng Insulators
61.80.Cb X-ray effects
68.35.Dv Composition, segregation; defects and impurities

Oxygen precipitation in antimony‐doped silicon wafers

F. Secco d’Aragona and P. L. Fejes

Appl. Phys. Lett. 48, 665 (1986); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.96737 (3 pages) | Cited 8 times

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Measurements of oxygen concentration as well as preferential etching of lightly and medium Sb‐doped wafers show that for high‐temperature (1050 °C) anneals the oxygen precipitation is inversely dependent on the dopant concentration, while it is independent of the dopant concentration for low‐temperature (650 °C) anneals. This is interpreted on the basis of a heterogeneous versus homogeneous precipitation mechanism.
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81.30.Mh Solid-phase precipitation
81.65.-b Surface treatments
61.72.sd Impurity concentration
61.72.sh Impurity distribution
61.72.sm Impurity gradients
81.40.Ef Cold working, work hardening; annealing, post-deformation annealing, quenching, tempering recovery, and crystallization

Threshold adjustments for complementary metal‐oxide‐semiconductor optimization using B and As focused ion beams

J. Y. Lee and R. L. Kubena

Appl. Phys. Lett. 48, 668 (1986); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.96738 (2 pages) | Cited 2 times

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Threshold adjustments have been performed on n‐ and p‐channel metal‐oxide‐semiconductor (mos) field‐effect transistors for complementary metal‐oxide‐semiconductor circuits using B and As focused ion beams (FIB’s). After conventional flood ion implantation for the wells and channels, additional selective threshold adjustment implants were made by FIB’s in 1×1012/cm2 increments. The threshold voltage shifts were 65 and 100 mV per each 1×1012/cm2 of FIB dose for PMOS and NMOS devices, respectively. Based on these results, precise tailoring of threshold values for optimal circuit performance appears practical.
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73.40.Qv Metal-insulator-semiconductor structures (including semiconductor-to-insulator)
85.30.Tv Field effect devices
85.40.Bh Computer-aided design of microcircuits; layout and modeling
61.72.uf Ge and Si

Magnetic properties of Fe‐R‐B powders

K. Gudimetta, C. N. Christodoulou, and G. C. Hadjipanayis

Appl. Phys. Lett. 48, 670 (1986); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.96739 (3 pages) | Cited 5 times

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The magnetic properties of Fe77R15B8 powders have been measured as a function of particle size in the temperature range 77–300 K. The coercivity is found to increase first with particle size to a maximum value and then to decrease again. This behavior is explained with the single domain particle theory. The peak values of coercivity obtained in the various alloys are found to scale with the anisotropy field. The temperature coefficients of coercivity are smaller than those observed in sintered magnets.
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75.50.Vv High coercivity materials
75.50.Kj Amorphous and quasicrystalline magnetic materials
81.40.Rs Electrical and magnetic properties related to treatment conditions
75.60.Ej Magnetization curves, hysteresis, Barkhausen and related effects

Development of preferentially current‐generating silicon solar cells

Andrei Silard, Florin Pera, and Gabriel Nani

Appl. Phys. Lett. 48, 673 (1986); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.96740 (3 pages) | Cited 4 times

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The work reports the development of ‘‘preferentially current‐generating’’ p+‐n‐n+ silicon solar cells. The distinctive trait of developed devices is their extremely large short‐circuit current density Jsc=38–39.7 mA/cm2, which is the highest value of Jsc reported thus far in the literature for ‘‘back‐surface‐field’’‐type cells under AM1 conditions. The conversion efficiency of test cells ranged from 17.1 to 18.15%. The results of this work show clearly that a simple, but adequately designed/processed p+‐n‐n+ cell fabricated in industrial environment on large area (2 in.) silicon wafers could possess parameters similar or superior to those of sophisticated laboratory samples elaborated on small area silicon chips.
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84.60.Jt Photoelectric conversion
72.40.+w Photoconduction and photovoltaic effects

Nanometer molecular lithography

Kenneth Douglas, Noel A. Clark, and Kenneth J. Rothschild

Appl. Phys. Lett. 48, 676 (1986); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.96741 (3 pages) | Cited 30 times

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See Also: Erratum

Show Abstract
We demonstrate a three‐step parallel process for the fabrication of a 1‐nm‐thick metal (Ta/W) film with 15‐nm‐diam holes periodically arranged on a triangular lattice of parameter 22 nm. In this process, a two‐dimensional crystalline protein monolayer is deposited on a smooth substrate, metal coated by evaporation, and then ion milled. Under ion milling this protein‐metal heterostructure exhibits differential metal removal and rearrangement which varies on a protein molecular length scale. The spatial ordering of the resulting holes has the same nanometer periodicity as the protein lattice.
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81.65.-b Surface treatments
81.15.-z Methods of deposition of films and coatings; film growth and epitaxy
81.15.Jj Ion and electron beam-assisted deposition; ion plating
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