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13 Apr 1987

Volume 50, Issue 15, pp. 947-1021


Carrier‐induced phase shift and absorption in a semiconductor laser waveguide under current injection

J. M. Liu, Y. C. Chen, and M. Newkirk

Appl. Phys. Lett. 50, 947 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.97995 (3 pages) | Cited 2 times

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The effects of injected carriers on the refractive index of an AlGaAs/GaAs semiconductor laser waveguide are investigated through measurements of the carrier‐induced phase shift and free‐carrier absorption of a guided probe laser beam at a wavelength below the band gap of the GaAs waveguide. The carrier densities and carrier lifetimes at various injection current levels can be deduced directly from these measurements. A carrier‐induced phase shift of more than π/2 is observed.
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42.79.Gn Optical waveguides and couplers
72.20.Jv Charge carriers: generation, recombination, lifetime, and trapping
85.60.-q Optoelectronic devices
78.20.Ci Optical constants (including refractive index, complex dielectric constant, absorption, reflection and transmission coefficients, emissivity)

Theory of Faraday rotation by dilute suspensions of small particles

P. M. Hui and D. Stroud

Appl. Phys. Lett. 50, 950 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.97996 (3 pages) | Cited 32 times

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We consider Faraday rotation by a dilute suspension of small particles embedded in a host. Using the Maxwell‐Garnett approximation, we obtain an expression for the complex effective dielectric tensor of the composite in the low concentration limit. The Faraday coefficient becomes anomalously large near the surface plasmon frequency of the small particles. Numerical examples are given for the frequency‐dependent off‐diagonal part of the dielectric tensor and for the angle of rotation.
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78.20.Ls Magneto-optical effects
77.22.Ch Permittivity (dielectric function)
42.25.Dd Wave propagation in random media
78.20.Fm Birefringence

Thin‐film reaction between Ti and Si3N4

J. C. Barbour, A. E. T. Kuiper, M. F. C. Willemsen, and A. H. Reader

Appl. Phys. Lett. 50, 953 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.98259 (3 pages) | Cited 20 times

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The thermal reaction of Ti with Si3N4 was studied over the temperature range from 500 to 800 °C with Auger electron spectroscopy, Rutherford backscattering spectrometry, and transmission electron microscopy. The initial reaction consumes part of the silicon nitride and yields a two‐layer morphology of Ti(N) on top of Ti5Si3. As the reaction proceeds, the Ti5Si3 layer is converted to TiSi2. At 800 °C, a multilayer morphology is observed containing primarily TiN and TiSi2.
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68.55.Nq Composition and phase identification
68.65.-k Low-dimensional, mesoscopic, nanoscale and other related systems: structure and nonelectronic properties
68.35.Fx Diffusion; interface formation
82.65.+r Surface and interface chemistry; heterogeneous catalysis at surfaces

Thermal stability of InGaAs/InP quantum well structures grown by gas source molecular beam epitaxy

H. Temkin, S. N. G. Chu, M. B. Panish, and R. A. Logan

Appl. Phys. Lett. 50, 956 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.97997 (3 pages) | Cited 46 times

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Single InGaAs/InP quantum wells and superlattices grown by gas source molecular beam epitaxy were subjected to brief anneals at temperatures in the 600–850 °C range. The resulting increases in the well thickness and changes in composition were monitored by low‐temperature photoluminescence and transmission electron microscopy. Very sharp well‐barrier interfaces are found to be present even after annealing at the highest anneal temperature. These results can be modeled assuming diffusivity proportional to the square of concentration with D0=7×1010 cm2/s and an activation energy of Q=5.8 eV.
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68.65.-k Low-dimensional, mesoscopic, nanoscale and other related systems: structure and nonelectronic properties
68.35.B- Structure of clean surfaces (and surface reconstruction)
68.60.Dv Thermal stability; thermal effects
78.55.Cr III-V semiconductors

Depth profiling of As at the SiO2/Si interface using secondary ion mass spectrometry

Alan E. Morgan and Philippe Maillot

Appl. Phys. Lett. 50, 959 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.97998 (3 pages) | Cited 4 times

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Arsenic profiles across the SiO2/Si interface have been measured with secondary ion mass spectrometry under different O+2 bombardment conditions using As implanted into SiO2 and Si for calibration purposes. Radiation‐enhanced segregation causes interfacial pile‐up in profiles obtained under oblique incidence bombardment both with and without O2 backfill. Thus, implantation profiles through SiO2 are best measured using near normal incidence bombardment. However, if As is actually piled up at the interface, oblique incidence bombardment in vacuo is preferable since oxygen saturation conditions broaden the interfacial peak.
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68.35.Dv Composition, segregation; defects and impurities
68.35.Fx Diffusion; interface formation
79.20.Rf Atomic, molecular, and ion beam impact and interactions with surfaces
07.75.+h Mass spectrometers

Catalytic growth rate enhancement of electron beam deposited iron films

R. R. Kunz and T. M. Mayer

Appl. Phys. Lett. 50, 962 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.97999 (3 pages) | Cited 29 times

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Submicron (<0.25 μm) wide lines of iron have been deposited by low‐energy (0.5–3.0 keV) electron beam induced decomposition of iron pentacarbonyl. Selective area thermal decomposition of iron pentacarbonyl has also been demonstrated. It was found that under certain conditions, the thermal decomposition only occurred on areas where a thin iron film had been previously deposited by electron stimulated decomposition. At 125 °C, the measured thermal decomposition probability was roughly 900 times greater on the deposited iron than previously reported data show for thermal decomposition on bare silicon. Anomalously high deposition yields of 15 to 50 iron atoms per electron were measured during electron stimulated decomposition.
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81.15.-z Methods of deposition of films and coatings; film growth and epitaxy
79.20.Kz Other electron-impact emission phenomena
82.65.+r Surface and interface chemistry; heterogeneous catalysis at surfaces

New insights on nucleation of tungsten on insulators during selective chemical vapor deposition

R. H. Wilson and A. G. Williams

Appl. Phys. Lett. 50, 965 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.98000 (3 pages) | Cited 7 times

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Selective deposition of tungsten on metals and silicon in the presence of insulators is important in several very large scale integrated circuit applications. The results of experiments investigating this selectivity are reported. The influence of the total area and composition of the selective growth surface on the nucleation of tungsten on adjacent insulators are illustrated. Specifically, nucleation is shown to occur preferentially in close proximity to the area of tungsten growth. The extent of nucleation on silicon dioxide compared to silicon nitride or phosphorus‐doped glass is dependent on the composition of the surface on which the initial selective tungsten growth occurs. The qualitative observations presented here form the basis for further quantitative investigations.
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81.15.-z Methods of deposition of films and coatings; film growth and epitaxy
81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)
85.40.-e Microelectronics: LSI, VLSI, ULSI; integrated circuit fabrication technology

Electric field induced refractive index changes in GaAs‐AlxGa1−xAs quantum wells

Tohya Hiroshima

Appl. Phys. Lett. 50, 968 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.98001 (3 pages) | Cited 12 times

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The refractive index changes near the excitonic absorption edge in a GaAs‐AlxGa1−xAs quantum well structure due to an external electric field have been calculated. Calculated maximum variation in the refractive index is approximately −0.07 for an electric field of 80 kV/cm for both a 60‐Å‐thick and a 100‐Å‐thick GaAs‐Al0.4Ga0.6As quantum wells. Also calculated results indicate that the forbidden excitonic transition, which comes to be allowed in the presence of an external electric field, has much greater effect for relatively thick quantum wells.
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78.20.Jq Electro-optical effects
78.20.Ci Optical constants (including refractive index, complex dielectric constant, absorption, reflection and transmission coefficients, emissivity)
78.66.Fd III-V semiconductors
78.66.Hf II-VI semiconductors

Direct observation of growth front movement in electron beam recrystallization of silicon layer on insulator

Tomoyasu Inoue and Toshihiko Hamasaki

Appl. Phys. Lett. 50, 971 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.98002 (3 pages) | Cited 2 times

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A high‐speed movie technique was used to investigate the growth front movement during electron beam recrystallization of thin silicon layers on insulating material. In a laterally epitaxial growth process, it was clearly observed that the molten zone shape dramatically changes across a seed opening, which is due to nonuniformity in heat dissipation toward the substrate in the vicinity of the seed opening. The molten zone width and velocities of the melt front and growth front were quantitatively analyzed using digital film motion analysis. The growth front velocity was found to drastically change by ∼30% across the seed opening.
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81.15.-z Methods of deposition of films and coatings; film growth and epitaxy
66.70.-f Nonelectronic thermal conduction and heat-pulse propagation in solids; thermal waves
07.68.+m Photography, photographic instruments; xerography
64.70.D- Solid-liquid transitions

Resonant tunneling of holes in AlAs/GaAs triple barrier diodes

T. Nakagawa, T. Fujita, Y. Matsumoto, T. Kojima, and K. Ohta

Appl. Phys. Lett. 50, 974 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.98003 (3 pages) | Cited 7 times

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Resonant tunneling of holes is observed at 85 K in an AlAs/GaAs/AlAs/GaAs/AlAs triple barrier structure sandwiched by p‐GaAs layers. Two to seven resonances are observed in the current‐voltage characteristics for all samples and bias polarities. The resonance peak voltages are observed to decrease according to the increase of the well thickness. The edge energies of hole subbands in the well are calculated from the resonance voltages, and comparison with the theoretical value is discussed.
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73.40.Gk Tunneling
73.40.Kp III-V semiconductor-to-semiconductor contacts, p-n junctions, and heterojunctions
85.30.Hi Surface barrier, boundary, and point contact devices
85.30.De Semiconductor-device characterization, design, and modeling

Yb‐doped InP grown by metalorganic chemical vapor deposition

Kunihiko Uwai, Hiroshi Nakagome, and Kenichiro Takahei

Appl. Phys. Lett. 50, 977 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.98260 (3 pages) | Cited 39 times

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Rare‐earth ion Yb is doped into InP at concentrations ranging from 1×1015 to 3×1018 cm−3 by metalorganic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD) using Yb(C5H5)3. Uniform depth profiles revealed by secondary ion mass spectroscopy indicate that controlled rare‐earth doping can be achieved by MOCVD. The grown layers show distinct photoluminescence (PL) spectra at 1.2 eV originating from intra‐4f‐shell transitions in Yb as well as near‐band‐edge emissions at 1.4 eV. In contrast to Yb‐ion‐implanted InP [H. Ennen, J. Schneider, G. Pomrenke, and A. Axman, Appl. Phys. Lett. 43, 943(1983)], PL spectra of MOCVD‐grown layers below 30 K suggest the absence of Yb ions associated with other impurities or defects. This shows that MOCVD‐grown Yb‐doped InP is of higher quality than the Yb‐ion‐implanted InP.
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68.55.Ln Defects and impurities: doping, implantation, distribution, concentration, etc.
81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)
78.55.Cr III-V semiconductors
85.60.-q Optoelectronic devices

Determination of critical layer thickness in InxGa1−xAs/GaAs heterostructures by x‐ray diffraction

P. J. Orders and B. F. Usher

Appl. Phys. Lett. 50, 980 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.98004 (3 pages) | Cited 126 times

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The critical thickness hc of strained InxGa1−xAs layers grown by molecular beam epitaxy on GaAs(100) substrates is determined by double‐crystal x‐ray diffraction for 0.07≤x≤0.25. The experimental results are in good agreement with critical thicknesses calculated from the energy balance model of R. People and J. C. Bean [Appl. Phys. Lett. 47, 322 (1985)] but differ from prior photoluminescence measurements of hc for this material. Beyond the critical thickness the transition from the strained to the relaxed state occurs more rapidly as the In concentration and hence the lattice mismatch increases.
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68.65.-k Low-dimensional, mesoscopic, nanoscale and other related systems: structure and nonelectronic properties
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology

Electron mobility in hydrogenated amorphous silicon under single and double injection

M. Silver, G. Winborne, D. Adler, and V. Cannella

Appl. Phys. Lett. 50, 983 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.98005 (3 pages) | Cited 8 times

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A recent suggestion that the band mobility of electrons in hydrogenated amorphous silicon (a‐Si:H) is larger under high‐level double‐injection than under single‐injection conditions because of the neutralization of charged defect states in the former case is tested by studying the transit time of carriers under both conditions. It is found that the drift mobility at 320 K in a device allowing the injection only of electrons is approximately 1 cm2/V s, consistent with the results of many earlier investigations. On contrast, the 320 K drift mobility in a device in which double injection of both electrons and holes occurs is estimated to be about 15 cm2/V s, more than an order of magnitude larger. We conclude that the band mobility of electrons in a‐Si:H is indeed considerably larger in the presence of high‐level double injection than under single‐injection conditions.
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72.20.Fr Low-field transport and mobility; piezoresistance
85.30.De Semiconductor-device characterization, design, and modeling
71.55.Ht Other nonmetals
72.80.Ng Disordered solids

Oxygen implantation for internal gettering and reducing carrier lifetime

David H. Weiner, S. Simon Wong, and Clifford I. Drowley

Appl. Phys. Lett. 50, 986 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.97954 (3 pages) | Cited 2 times

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Implantation of oxygen into Si wafers has been studied as a method to create a defect region for gettering impurities. An epitaxial layer is subsequently deposited to bury the defects. The nature of the defects as well as the effects on the quality of epitaxy, carrier lifetime, and diode leakage current is characterized.
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85.40.Bh Computer-aided design of microcircuits; layout and modeling
61.72.uf Ge and Si
66.30.J- Diffusion of impurities
72.20.Jv Charge carriers: generation, recombination, lifetime, and trapping

Comparison of carrier profiles from spreading resistance analysis and from model calculations for abrupt doping structures

A. Casel and H. Jorke

Appl. Phys. Lett. 50, 989 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.97955 (3 pages) | Cited 20 times

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Very abrupt doping structures grown by Si molecular beam epitaxy are investigated by spreading resistance (SR) analysis. The corresponding SR profiles reveal strong carrier spilling effects. To calculate the ‘‘on bevel’’ carrier concentrations of these structures, a formalism is developed which is based on the Poisson–Boltzmann equation. Qualitative agreement between the model calculation and the SR data is established.
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73.61.Cw Elemental semiconductors
73.61.Jc Amorphous semiconductors; glasses
73.61.Le Other inorganic semiconductors
61.72.sd Impurity concentration
61.72.sh Impurity distribution
61.72.sm Impurity gradients
73.50.Gr Charge carriers: generation, recombination, lifetime, trapping, mean free paths

Effect of in situ and ex situ annealing on dislocations in GaAs on Si substrates

C. Choi, N. Otsuka, G. Munns, R. Houdre, H. Morkoç, S. L. Zhang, D. Levi, and M. V. Klein

Appl. Phys. Lett. 50, 992 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.97956 (3 pages) | Cited 66 times

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Gallium arsenide layers grown by molecular beam epitaxy on (100) Si substrates were subjected to annealing under As overpressure at 650, 750, and 850 °C for 1/2 h. A substantial reduction in the dislocation density near the interface and in the bulk of the epitaxial layers was observed for the 850 °C anneal. In situ annealing at 700 °C for 1/2 h after 1/2 h of growth followed by a deposition of InGaAs/GaAs strained‐layer superlattices and bulk layers also resulted in reduced dislocation densities.
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68.35.Dv Composition, segregation; defects and impurities
68.55.Ln Defects and impurities: doping, implantation, distribution, concentration, etc.
68.65.-k Low-dimensional, mesoscopic, nanoscale and other related systems: structure and nonelectronic properties
81.40.Ef Cold working, work hardening; annealing, post-deformation annealing, quenching, tempering recovery, and crystallization

Effect of hydrogen on shallow dopants in crystalline silicon

Sokrates T. Pantelides

Appl. Phys. Lett. 50, 995 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.97957 (3 pages) | Cited 77 times

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Passivation of shallow impurities by H has been attributed to H‐impurity pairing in both p‐type and n‐type Si. We show that existing interpretations of data were based on contradictory assumptions and that a coherent interpretation of all the data can only be obtained if one assumes that diffusing H has a donor level in the gap. A novel interpretation emerges: In p‐type material, passivation is due to direct compensation, so that pairing is a consequence, not a cause of passivation; in n‐type material, passivation is indeed due to pairing, but is suppressed by H2 formation and possibly other reactions. Several predictions are made and new experiments are proposed as tests.
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61.72.uf Ge and Si
71.55.Ht Other nonmetals
81.65.-b Surface treatments

Background doping dependence of silicon diffusion in p‐type GaAs

D. G. Deppe, N. Holonyak, F. A. Kish, and J. E. Baker

Appl. Phys. Lett. 50, 998 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.97958 (3 pages) | Cited 49 times

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Junction depth measurements via scanning electron microscopy and secondary ion mass spectroscopy are used to characterize silicon diffusion in GaAs crystals that contain varying amounts of zinc background doping. The zinc concentration is found to control the silicon diffusion process. A reason for this is suggested based on the shift in Fermi level with increased p‐type doping. Also, the electric field due to the p‐n junction formed at the silicon diffusion front is shown to have a large effect on the zinc background doping profile.
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66.30.J- Diffusion of impurities
61.72.U- Doping and impurity implantation
61.72.jd Vacancies
61.72.jj Interstitials
66.30.Lw Diffusion of other defects

Ultraviolet‐excited photoluminescence and Raman scattering in Cd1−xMnxTe‐CdTe microstructures

S. Perkowitz, S. S. Yom, R. N. Bicknell, and J. F. Schetzina

Appl. Phys. Lett. 50, 1001 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.97988 (3 pages) | Cited 4 times

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Photoluminescence (PL) and Raman scattering from Cd1−xMnxTe‐CdTe superlattices (x=0.06, 0.23, and 0.45) have been excited for the first time by ultraviolet light of energy 3.4–3.7 eV. The PL spectra show the known confinement‐enhanced E0(Γ6,c−Γ8,v) transition and a new peak near the E0+Δ0(Γ6,c−Γ7,v) transition. Raman spectra resemble those from bulk Cd1−xMnxTe. Resonant or nearly resonant Raman scattering, manifested through phonon overtones, occurs near the E0+Δ0 and E1(Λ6,c−Λ4,5,v) transitions. A superlattice with extremely thin layers (16 Å/21 Å) shows good Raman spectral quality.
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78.55.Et II-VI semiconductors
78.30.Fs III-V and II-VI semiconductors
78.66.Fd III-V semiconductors
78.66.Hf II-VI semiconductors
68.65.-k Low-dimensional, mesoscopic, nanoscale and other related systems: structure and nonelectronic properties

Dependence of the conduction in In0.53Ga0.47As‐InP double‐barrier tunneling structures on the mesa‐etching process

T. H. H. Vuong, D. C. Tsui, and W. T. Tsang

Appl. Phys. Lett. 50, 1004 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.97989 (3 pages) | Cited 10 times

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Measurements of the current‐voltage curves of several In0.53Ga0.47As‐InP double‐barrier tunneling structures are presented as a function of the etching process used. It is shown that the large nontunneling leakage current previously observed in devices etched with the HBr:H3PO4:K2Cr2O7 solution is caused by conduction at the etched edges of the mesas. This leakage current is significantly reduced by the selective etching of the InGaAs from InP and the peak‐to‐valley ratio is thereby increased to a maximum value of 3.1 at 4.2 K. The resonance voltage values are symmetrical about zero bias in contrast to results obtained from similar structures of the AlGaAs‐GaAs and HgTe‐HgCdTe systems, and are in good agreement with theory for the more pronounced of the two resonances observed in these devices.
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85.30.Hi Surface barrier, boundary, and point contact devices
81.65.-b Surface treatments
85.60.-q Optoelectronic devices
73.40.Kp III-V semiconductor-to-semiconductor contacts, p-n junctions, and heterojunctions

New metastable defects in GaAs

W. R. Buchwald, N. M. Johnson, and L. P. Trombetta

Appl. Phys. Lett. 50, 1007 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.97990 (3 pages) | Cited 20 times

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Two previously unreported metastable defects in n‐type GaAs epitaxial layers grown by metalorganic chemical vapor deposition have been identified by deep level transient spectroscopy. These levels, here labeled M3 and M4, have activation energies for thermal emission of electrons of 0.31 and 0.61 eV, respectively. Formation of the M4 center and annealing of the M3 center are observed to take place when a reverse bias is applied to Schottky diodes at elevated temperatures. The reverse transition is observed under zero bias at elevated temperatures (e.g., 400 K). An additional metastable defect, labeled M2, with transformation properties similar to those of the M4 center and an emission activation energy of 0.64 eV, was observed in samples which received a rapid thermal anneal at temperatures of 900 °C and above.
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71.55.Eq III-V semiconductors

Quantum‐confined Stark effect in InGaAs/InP quantum wells grown by organometallic vapor phase epitaxy

I. Bar‐Joseph, C. Klingshirn, D. A. B. Miller, D. S. Chemla, U. Koren, and B. I. Miller

Appl. Phys. Lett. 50, 1010 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.97991 (3 pages) | Cited 57 times

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We report the first observation of the quantum‐confined Stark effect in InGaAs/InP multiple quantum wells grown by organometallic vapor phase epitaxy. The effect is observed both in transmission and photoconductivity measurements. The observed spectral shift agrees with the theory.
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71.70.Ej Spin-orbit coupling, Zeeman and Stark splitting, Jahn-Teller effect
72.40.+w Photoconduction and photovoltaic effects
73.61.Ey III-V semiconductors
78.66.Fd III-V semiconductors
78.66.Hf II-VI semiconductors

Space‐charge‐limited current in a miniaturized quadrupole channel

R. W. Thomae, F. Siebenlist, A. E. van Putten, P. W. van Amersfoort, H. Klein, A. Schempp, and T. Weis

Appl. Phys. Lett. 50, 1013 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.97992 (3 pages)

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We present measurements on the transport of low‐energy ions through a miniaturized electrostatic quadrupole channel. These are done at a zero‐current phase advance per cell of 60°. The limiting current is 50% smaller than is calculated with the Kapchinsky–Vladimirsky equations. This reduction is attributed to mismatch and misalignment, which have a pronounced influence in a miniaturized channel.
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41.75.Ak Positive-ion beams
41.75.Cn Negative-ion beams
07.77.-n Atomic, molecular, and charged-particle sources and detectors

Supplemental multilevel interconnects by laser direct writing: Application to GaAs digital integrated circuits

Jerry G. Black, Scott P. Doran, Mordechai Rothschild, and Daniel J. Ehrlich

Appl. Phys. Lett. 50, 1016 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.97993 (3 pages) | Cited 19 times

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A nonperturbing sequence of laser direct‐writing processes is described for applying supplemental multilevel interconnects on partially or fully fabricated circuits. The approach adds multiple levels of laser direct‐written tungsten metallization and is demonstrated here for the assembly of a simple latch circuit on a standard GaAs digital test chip. Principal applications are for subsystem verification, device testing, restructuring, and fault avoidance on Si and GaAs circuits.
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79.20.Ds Laser-beam impact phenomena
85.40.Bh Computer-aided design of microcircuits; layout and modeling
81.05.Bx Metals, semimetals, and alloys
81.65.-b Surface treatments

Time‐resolved photoacoustic studies of vascular tissue ablation at three laser wavelengths

F. W. Cross, R. K. Al‐Dhahir, P. E. Dyer, and A. J. MacRobert

Appl. Phys. Lett. 50, 1019 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.97994 (3 pages) | Cited 28 times

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Nanosecond‐time‐resolved photoacoustic transducers have been used to study the subthreshold and ablation response of vascular tissue irradiated with short laser pulses at 248, 308, and 532 nm. Attenuation coefficients, ablation thresholds, and ablation time scales can be obtained in this way providing new information on the laser‐tissue interaction problem.
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87.50.S- Radiofrequency/microwave fields effects
87.50.W- Optical/infrared radiation effects
43.35.Ud Thermoacoustics, high temperature acoustics, photoacoustic effect
43.38.Zp Acoustooptic and photoacoustic transducers
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