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18 May 1987

Volume 50, Issue 20, pp. 1397-1457


Coupling of diode laser arrays with photorefractive passive phase conjugate mirrors

Mordechai Segev, Shimon Weiss, and Baruch Fischer

Appl. Phys. Lett. 50, 1397 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.97832 (3 pages) | Cited 18 times

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An experimental study of the coupling of diode laser arrays to various photorefractive phase conjugate mirrors is presented. We demonstrate frequency locking of arrays as well as the control of their emitted light patterns.
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42.60.Fc Modulation, tuning, and mode locking
42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.60.By Design of specific laser systems
42.65.Jx Beam trapping, self-focusing and defocusing; self-phase modulation

Reduction of relative intensity noise in 1.3 μm InGaAsP semiconductor lasers

P. Hill, R. Olshansky, J. Schlafer, and W. Powazinik

Appl. Phys. Lett. 50, 1400 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.97833 (3 pages) | Cited 4 times

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Relative intensity noise (RIN) from 1.3 μm InGaAsP vapor phase regrown buried heterostructure diode lasers with cavity lengths of 100–300 μm and resonant frequencies exceeding 15 GHz is measured for the first time over the 2.5–18 GHz frequency range. We show that the RIN decreases by nearly 8 dB as the cavity length increases from 100 to 300 μm, and that the RIN is also reduced by lowering the active p‐doping concentration. The measured RIN is in excellent agreement with the expression derived from the laser rate equations.
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42.60.Jf Beam characteristics: profile, intensity, and power; spatial pattern formation
42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
72.70.+m Noise processes and phenomena
42.60.Da Resonators, cavities, amplifiers, arrays, and rings

Temperature‐dependent factors contributing to T0 in graded‐index separate‐confinement‐heterostructure single quantum well lasers

M. M. Leopold, A. P. Specht, C. A. Zmudzinski, M. E. Givens, and J. J. Coleman

Appl. Phys. Lett. 50, 1403 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.97834 (3 pages) | Cited 5 times

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The temperature dependence of threshold current in graded‐index, separate‐confinement‐heterostructure, single quantum well lasers has been investigated and analyzed. The conventional parameter used to describe this temperature dependence, T0, is measured and shown to increase with cavity length. The temperature dependences of the loss coefficient α and the differential gain β have also been measured. Both parameters decrease linearly with temperature in the range 20–70 °C. Competition between α(T) and β(T) is shown to account for the dependence of T0 on cavity length and to suggest guidelines for designing high T0 lasers.
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42.60.Da Resonators, cavities, amplifiers, arrays, and rings
42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.60.By Design of specific laser systems

Polarization bistability in semiconductor laser: Rate equation analysis

Y. C. Chen and J. M. Liu

Appl. Phys. Lett. 50, 1406 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.97835 (3 pages) | Cited 11 times

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The bistable switching between the TE and TM modes in semiconductor lasers has been analyzed using the rate equations. The condition of bistability has been determined using linear and nonlinear gain constants. The observed bistable switching behavior can be explained by a numerical simulation.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.55.Rz Doped-insulator lasers and other solid state lasers
42.60.Da Resonators, cavities, amplifiers, arrays, and rings

Linewidth enhancement factor in InGaAsP/InP multiple quantum well lasers

C. A. Green, N. K. Dutta, and W. Watson

Appl. Phys. Lett. 50, 1409 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.97836 (2 pages) | Cited 7 times

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The linewidth enhancement factor α in an InGaAsP/InP multiple quantum well (MQW) laser has been determined from the spontaneous emission spectra below threshold. It is demonstrated that the measured value of α in the MQW laser is appreciably smaller than that in a conventional double heterostructure laser as expected from theoretical calculations.
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42.60.Jf Beam characteristics: profile, intensity, and power; spatial pattern formation
42.60.Da Resonators, cavities, amplifiers, arrays, and rings
42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes

Ultrasonic pole figure for the texture of an aluminum alloy

M. Hirao and N. Hara

Appl. Phys. Lett. 50, 1411 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.97837 (2 pages) | Cited 3 times

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An approximate method is proposed to calculate the pole figure diagrams based on the elastic anisotropy measured by ultrasonic velocity experiments. An example is taken from the surface texture of rolled plates of aluminum alloy 7075‐T651, for which the angular dependence of the Rayleigh wave is measured in the rolling plane and analyzed to obtain the expansion coefficients of orientation distribution function. The ultrasonic pole figures are favorably compared with the conventional x‐ray pole figures, both demonstrating a single texture centered over (001)[110] orientation.
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43.35.Cg Ultrasonic velocity, dispersion, scattering, diffraction, and attenuation in solids; elastic constants
43.35.Zc Use of ultrasonics in nondestructive testing, industrial processes, and industrial products
81.40.Ef Cold working, work hardening; annealing, post-deformation annealing, quenching, tempering recovery, and crystallization
68.35.-p Solid surfaces and solid-solid interfaces: structure and energetics

Ferroelectric domain inversion caused in LiNbO3 plates by heat treatment

Kiyoshi Nakamura, Haruyasu Ando, and Hiroshi Shimizu

Appl. Phys. Lett. 50, 1413 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.97838 (2 pages) | Cited 62 times

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It is demonstrated that heat treatment of a LiNbO3 plate at temperatures somewhat lower than the Curie point causes a ferroelectric domain inversion, thereby yielding an inversion layer useful for various piezoelectric devices. The dependences of the inversion layer thickness on the heat treatment conditions, such as temperature, time, and atmosphere, are experimentally examined. The results show that the domain boundary appears to stop at the median plane of the plate finally. The possible mechanism of the domain inversion is also discussed.
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77.80.Dj Domain structure; hysteresis
77.65.-j Piezoelectricity and electromechanical effects
81.40.Rs Electrical and magnetic properties related to treatment conditions

Effect of hydrogen on electromigration and 1/f noise in gold films

K. P. Rodbell, P. J. Ficalora, and Roger Koch

Appl. Phys. Lett. 50, 1415 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.97839 (2 pages) | Cited 7 times

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The 1/f noise of polycrystalline gold films (5 μm wide and 0.5 μm thick) was found to decrease in the presence of hydrogen, to a level comparable with that in a single‐crystal gold film. Additionally, hydrogen was found to segregate to the metal‐substrate interface. On the basis of these results and recent evidence in the literature, we propose that hydrogen interacting with interface defects is responsible for both the observed 1/f noise decrease and the previously reported electromigration enhancements.
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73.50.Td Noise processes and phenomena
66.30.Qa Electromigration
73.61.At Metal and metallic alloys
68.35.Fx Diffusion; interface formation

Determination of the atomic configuration at semiconductor interfaces

A. Ourmazd, W. T. Tsang, J. A. Rentschler, and D. W. Taylor

Appl. Phys. Lett. 50, 1417 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.97840 (3 pages) | Cited 35 times

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We describe an approach based on high‐resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM), which is capable of directly and sensitively revealing the atomic configuration at compound semiconductor/semiconductor interfaces, and thus show that interfaces normally regarded as atomically smooth can contain significant roughness. Our technique establishes that HRTEM can simultaneously provide chemical and structural information on an atomic scale.
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68.35.B- Structure of clean surfaces (and surface reconstruction)
68.65.-k Low-dimensional, mesoscopic, nanoscale and other related systems: structure and nonelectronic properties
07.79.Cz Scanning tunneling microscopes
61.05.-a Techniques for structure determination
68.35.Gy Mechanical properties; surface strains

Conductive, spin‐cast carbon films from polyacrylonitrile

C. L. Renschler and A. P. Sylwester

Appl. Phys. Lett. 50, 1420 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.97841 (3 pages) | Cited 7 times

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Polyacrylonitrile films have been spin cast and pyrolyzed to produce thin (500–1500 Å) carbon films. These films have higher electrical conductivities than films produced by other methods at similar temperatures. The conductivity can be varied by at least four orders of magnitude by changing the pyrolysis temperature. Ultraviolet, infrared, and Raman spectroscopies were used to investigate the chemical structure of the films during different stages of processing.
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81.40.Rs Electrical and magnetic properties related to treatment conditions
73.61.Cw Elemental semiconductors
73.61.Jc Amorphous semiconductors; glasses
73.61.Le Other inorganic semiconductors
81.40.Tv Optical and dielectric properties related to treatment conditions
81.05.Lg Polymers and plastics; rubber; synthetic and natural fibers; organometallic and organic materials

Transmission electron microscopy of (001) CdTe on (001) GaAs grown by metalorganic chemical vapor deposition

J. Petruzzello, D. Olego, S. K. Ghandhi, N. R. Taskar, and I. Bhat

Appl. Phys. Lett. 50, 1423 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.97842 (3 pages) | Cited 17 times

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The nature of dislocations in (001) CdTe‐(001) GaAs heterostructures was investigated by transmission electron microscopy. The samples were grown by metalorganic chemical vapor deposition with CdTe layer thicknesses h ranging from 0.1 to 2.2 μm. The interface contains an array of misfit dislocations spaced about 31 Å apart, independent of h. These dislocations do not relax all of the lattice mismatch (14.6%) in the CdTe layers with h<1 μm. Above the interfaces, surface nucleated dislocations are observed in the CdTe layers and their density depends on h. No evidence of an oxide or foreign interface layer was found in these samples.
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68.35.Dv Composition, segregation; defects and impurities
81.15.Kk Vapor phase epitaxy; growth from vapor phase
81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)

Chemically induced high‐tilt surfaces for liquid crystals

Robert W. Filas and J. S. Patel

Appl. Phys. Lett. 50, 1426 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.97843 (3 pages) | Cited 42 times

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A method for producing high‐tilt boundary conditions for liquid crystals has been developed which requires only chemical treatment followed by conventional rubbing techniques. The basic concept involves two chemicals: one which, by itself, produces homogeneous orientation, and the other which, by itself, gives homeotropic orientation. By varying the relative concentrations of the two components, it is possible to balance the surface forces to give any desired tilt angle. The chemicals chosen were two silanes: N‐methylaminopropyltrimethoxysilane and octadecyltriethoxysilane, where the former is the homogeneous component and the latter is the homeotropic component. Although the system has some practical limitations, such as time‐dependent solution behavior and high‐temperature instability, it is possible to produce the entire range of tilt angles from homogeneous to homeotropic.
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61.30.Gd Orientational order of liquid crystals; electric and magnetic field effects on order
81.15.Lm Liquid phase epitaxy; deposition from liquid phases (melts, solutions, and surface layers on liquids)

Radiative recombination coefficient of free carriers in GaAs‐AlGaAs quantum wells and its dependence on temperature

Toshio Matsusue and Hiroyuki Sakaki

Appl. Phys. Lett. 50, 1429 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.97844 (3 pages) | Cited 53 times

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The radiative recombination coefficient B, defined by dN/dt=dP/dt≡−BNP, of two‐dimensional free carriers, N and P, in a selectively doped GaAs/n‐Al0.3Ga0.7As quantum well was determined in the temperature range T between 15 and 300 K by measuring the decay time τ of photoluminescence from the quantum well with electron density N0=1×1012/cm2. It is found that B(=1/τN0) is 1.1–1.9×10−4 cm2/s at 300 K and increases as T is lowered, reaching 2.3×10−3 cm2/s (τ∼0.43 ns) at 15 K. The initial increase of B is nearly proportional to 1/T, whereas B tends to saturate at low temperature. These experimental findings are shown to be well explained by the theory of band‐to‐band recombination of two‐dimensional carriers in quantum wells.
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72.20.Jv Charge carriers: generation, recombination, lifetime, and trapping
73.50.Gr Charge carriers: generation, recombination, lifetime, trapping, mean free paths
78.60.-b Other luminescence and radiative recombination
78.55.Cr III-V semiconductors

Activation ratio of Fe in Fe‐doped semi‐insulating InP epitaxial layers grown by liquid phase epitaxy and metalorganic chemical vapor deposition

M. Sugawara, M. Kondo, K. Nakai, A. Yamaguchi, and K. Nakajima

Appl. Phys. Lett. 50, 1432 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.97845 (3 pages) | Cited 15 times

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The activation ratio of Fe atoms introduced in semi‐insulating (SI) InP layers grown by liquid phase epitaxy (LPE) and metalorganic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD) has been investigated, employing the current‐voltage characteristics of n+‐SI‐n+ InP diodes and secondary ion mass spectroscopy analysis. The result indicates that most Fe atoms in LPE‐grown SI layers are electrically active as deep acceptors; however, a large amount of unactivated Fe atoms are present in MOCVD‐grown SI layers. This difference between the two kinds of Fe‐doped SI layers can be attributed to the difference in the growth mechanisms of LPE and MOCVD.
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61.72.U- Doping and impurity implantation
68.55.Ln Defects and impurities: doping, implantation, distribution, concentration, etc.
81.15.Lm Liquid phase epitaxy; deposition from liquid phases (melts, solutions, and surface layers on liquids)
73.61.Ey III-V semiconductors

Abrupt p‐type doping profile of carbon atomic layer doped GaAs grown by flow‐rate modulation epitaxy

Naoki Kobayashi, Toshiki Makimoto, and Yoshiji Horikoshi

Appl. Phys. Lett. 50, 1435 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.97846 (3 pages) | Cited 81 times

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Atomic layer doping of p‐type carbon impurity in GaAs was demonstrated using flow‐rate modulation epitaxy. An extremely narrow capacitance‐voltage profile with 5.8 nm full width at half‐maximum is observed in the wafer with a sheet hole density of 9.5×1011 cm−2. Atomic layer doping of carbon was performed by supplying trimethylgallium or trimethylaluminium instead of triethylgallium. It was found that the sheet hole density does not change before and after annealing for 1 h at 800 °C indicating that the carbon is a very stable impurity in GaAs. The diffusion coefficient of carbon is estimated to be 2×10−16 cm−2/s at 800 °C. This is the lowest value ever reported for p‐type impurities.
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68.55.Ln Defects and impurities: doping, implantation, distribution, concentration, etc.
73.61.Ey III-V semiconductors
66.30.J- Diffusion of impurities
81.15.Kk Vapor phase epitaxy; growth from vapor phase

Transient spectroscopy using the Hall effect

Z. Kachwalla and D. J. Miller

Appl. Phys. Lett. 50, 1438 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.97847 (3 pages) | Cited 2 times

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The Hall effect is used to measure the transient change in the carrier concentration in a semiconductor sample due to the thermal emission from states filled by a pulsed perturbation. This method has several advantages over other methods based on measuring the capacitance transient or the current transient. The identity of the released carriers can be determined from the sign of the Hall voltage. The new method is applied to the measurement of traps in epitaxial GaAs.
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72.20.Jv Charge carriers: generation, recombination, lifetime, and trapping
72.20.My Galvanomagnetic and other magnetotransport effects
71.55.Eq III-V semiconductors
72.80.Ey III-V and II-VI semiconductors

Control of orientation of CdTe grown on clean GaAs and the reconstruction of the precursor surfaces

R. Srinivasa, M. B. Panish, and H. Temkin

Appl. Phys. Lett. 50, 1441 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.97848 (3 pages) | Cited 30 times

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The orientation of CdTe grown epitaxially onto clean (100) GaAs by molecular beam epitaxy can be predetermined by the GaAs precursor surface reconstruction that is present where the CdTe growth is initiated. A Ga‐stabilized GaAs starting surface yields CdTe (111) and an As‐stabilized GaAs surface yields CdTe (100).
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68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
68.35.B- Structure of clean surfaces (and surface reconstruction)
81.15.Hi Molecular, atomic, ion, and chemical beam epitaxy

Two‐step rapid thermal annealing of Si‐implanted InP:Fe

Mulpuri V. Rao and Phillip E. Thompson

Appl. Phys. Lett. 50, 1444 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.97849 (3 pages) | Cited 24 times

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Rapid thermal annealing has been used to electrically activate Si‐implanted InP:Fe. A two‐step annealing cycle in which the short (5 s) high‐temperature step is followed by a relatively long (25–60 s) 100 °C lower temperature step gave higher activation and carrier mobility than the corresponding short high‐temperature or long low‐temperature single step annealing cycle. A good surface morphology was achieved by using InP proximity anneal if the maximum annealing temperature is limited to 900 °C for not more than 5 s. The maximum mobilities and activations obtained for 200 keV/5×1013 cm−2 and 150 keV/1×1013 cm−2 Si+ implants were 1740 and 2260 cm2/V s and 88 and 98%, respectively. The position of the peak carrier concentration in the depth profile closely matched that of the Lindhard–Scharff–Schiott prediction.
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81.40.Ef Cold working, work hardening; annealing, post-deformation annealing, quenching, tempering recovery, and crystallization
81.40.Rs Electrical and magnetic properties related to treatment conditions
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
73.61.Ey III-V semiconductors

Bulk‐quality bipolar transistors fabricated in low‐temperature (Tdep =800 °C) epitaxial silicon

W. R. Burger and R. Reif

Appl. Phys. Lett. 50, 1447 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.97850 (3 pages) | Cited 8 times

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In this letter we report for the first time the fabrication of bulk‐quality bipolar transistors in low‐temperature (Tdep =800 °C) epitaxial silicon. The epitaxial layers were deposited by an ultra‐low pressure chemical vapor deposition technique utilizing an in situ predeposition argon sputter clean. The critical parameter affecting the quality of the epitaxial films is the deposition temperature. The junction leakage current decreases by two orders of magnitude, the ideality factor improves from 1.36 to 1.04, and the minority‐carrier lifetime increases from 1.3 to 46 μs as the deposition temperature is increased from 750 to 800 °C. Analysis of the base‐emitter and base‐collector junction characteristics indicates that bipolar transistors fabricated in epitaxial films deposited at 800 °C have characteristics at least as good as control fabricated in bulk silicon.
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85.30.Pq Bipolar transistors
73.61.Cw Elemental semiconductors
73.61.Jc Amorphous semiconductors; glasses
73.61.Le Other inorganic semiconductors
81.15.Kk Vapor phase epitaxy; growth from vapor phase
81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)

Paramagnetic centers at Si‐SiO2 interfaces in silicon‐on‐insulator films

W. E. Carlos

Appl. Phys. Lett. 50, 1450 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.97798 (3 pages) | Cited 46 times

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Electron spin resonance measurements of silicon‐on‐insulator materials formed oxygen implantation are reported. The principal paramagnetic defect observed is a Pb center at the interface between Si and SiO2 precipitates in the Si film over the buried oxide layer. The 29Si central hyperfine interaction and the 29Si superhyperfine interaction with neighboring Si atoms are resolved. The results are very close to those for the Pb center at the Si‐thermal oxide interface and recent theoretical calculations.
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76.30.Mi Color centers and other defects
72.20.Jv Charge carriers: generation, recombination, lifetime, and trapping
73.40.Qv Metal-insulator-semiconductor structures (including semiconductor-to-insulator)
73.61.Ng Insulators

Transmission electron microscope study of the formation of Ni2Si and NiSi on amorphous silicon

M. O. Aboelfotoh, H. M. Tawancy, and F. M. d’Heurle

Appl. Phys. Lett. 50, 1453 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.97799 (2 pages) | Cited 11 times

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The reaction of very thin (0.5–20 nm) layers of Ni with amorphous Si has been investigated by means of transmission electron microscopy and diffraction. The experiment, which is directly parallel to a previous study of similar samples prepared with Pd and Pt, has led to different observations. With Ni it is found that an amorphous Ni‐Si solution is formed first, and that silicide formation, at temperatures which decrease with the amount of deposited Ni, results from the crystallization of that amorphous phase. With Pt and Pd microcrystalline silicides had been observed immediately.
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81.15.-z Methods of deposition of films and coatings; film growth and epitaxy
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
82.65.+r Surface and interface chemistry; heterogeneous catalysis at surfaces

Magnetic imaging by ‘‘force microscopy’’ with 1000 Å resolution

Y. Martin and H. K. Wickramasinghe

Appl. Phys. Lett. 50, 1455 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.97800 (3 pages) | Cited 442 times

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We describe a new method for imaging magnetic fields with 1000 Å resolution. The technique is based on using a force microscope to measure the magnetic force between a magnetized tip and the scanned surface. The method shows promise for the high‐resolution mapping of both static and dynamic magnetic fields.
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07.55.-w Magnetic instruments and components
85.70.-w Magnetic devices
07.07.-a General equipment
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