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2 Mar 1987

Volume 50, Issue 9, pp. 483-546


Spatial light modulation and filtering effects in photorefractive wave mixing

Baruch Fischer, Shimon Weiss, and Shmuel Sternklar

Appl. Phys. Lett. 50, 483 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.98180 (3 pages) | Cited 12 times

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A study of photorefractive wave mixing with image bearing beams reveals unique capabilities in spatial modulation, filtering, and cleanup of amplitude and phase modulated beams. We study and explain the negligible image crosstalk in various photorefractive oscillators.
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42.65.Ky Frequency conversion; harmonic generation, including higher-order harmonic generation
42.30.Va Image forming and processing
42.79.Ci Filters, zone plates, and polarizers
78.20.Jq Electro-optical effects

2‐cyclooctylamino‐5‐nitropyridine, a new nonlinear optical crystal with orthorhombic symmetry

P. Günter, Ch. Bosshard, K. Sutter, H. Arend, G. Chapuis, R. J. Twieg, and D. Dobrowolski

Appl. Phys. Lett. 50, 486 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.98181 (3 pages) | Cited 65 times

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A new nonlinear optical crystal 2‐cyclooctylamino‐5‐nitropyridine (COANP) with point group symmetry mm2 has been grown by a temperature difference solution growth technique. Its linear and nonlinear optical properties have been investigated. The refractive indices na =1.702, nb =1.847, and nc =1.681 (λ=550 nm) and the nonlinear optical susceptibilities d31 and d33 (λω =1.06 μm) have been determined. Type I phase matching for Nd:YAG lasers (λ=1.06 μm) has been demonstrated for the configuration using a combination of d31 and d32 by angle tuning. A peak efficiency η=P2ω/Pω =3.6% has been observed with a 0.90‐mm‐thick crystal and a fundamental power Pω =560 W.
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78.20.Ci Optical constants (including refractive index, complex dielectric constant, absorption, reflection and transmission coefficients, emissivity)
78.20.Fm Birefringence
42.70.-a Optical materials
81.10.Dn Growth from solutions

Linewidth‐narrowed distributed feedback injection lasers with long cavity length and detuned Bragg wavelength

K.‐Y. Liou, N. K. Dutta, and C. A. Burrus

Appl. Phys. Lett. 50, 489 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.98182 (3 pages) | Cited 4 times

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We report linewidth narrowing for 1.3‐μm InGaAsP distributed feedback lasers with either a long cavity length or a detuned Bragg wavelength. The narrowest linewidth measured was 3 MHz at 6 mW for a 780‐μm long‐cavity laser, and was 8 MHz at 5.5 mW for a 250‐μm regular‐length laser with detuned wavelength. From our analysis, distributed feedback lasers with 1 MHz linewidth appear to be feasible.
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42.60.Jf Beam characteristics: profile, intensity, and power; spatial pattern formation
42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.60.Da Resonators, cavities, amplifiers, arrays, and rings

Continuum modeling of argon radio frequency glow discharges

Albert D. Richards, Brian E. Thompson, and Herbert H. Sawin

Appl. Phys. Lett. 50, 492 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.98183 (3 pages) | Cited 95 times

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A continuum model has been developed which successfully describes the concentration, movement, and energetics of charged particles within a rf discharge. This model includes continuity equations for all charged particles, Poisson’s equation to determine the local electric fields, and an electron energy balance to determine the ionization and energy‐loss rates. All input parameters (diffusivity, mobility, ionization, and energy‐loss rate) were defined using reported values determined in dc field experiments.
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52.80.Pi High-frequency and RF discharges
52.25.Fi Transport properties
52.25.Dg Plasma kinetic equations
52.80.Hc Glow; corona

Amorphous alloys formed by microsecond current pulses

B. M. Clemens, R. M. Gilgenbach, and S. Bidwell

Appl. Phys. Lett. 50, 495 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.98184 (3 pages) | Cited 4 times

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We report the use of microsecond current pulses to transform layered crystalline nickel‐zirconium films to amorphous alloy. Starting material was electron beam deposited multilayers with a composition modulation wavelength of 34 nm, an average composition of Ni63Zr37, and a total thickness of 680 nm. Electrical pulses were approximately rectangular and about 3 μs in duration, with an intensity of several hundred amperes, directly coupling 1.6 to 3 J of energy uniformly into the film. By monitoring current and voltage, the reaction and melting of the sample were observed, and the total energy of the pulse was easily computed. A sharp threshold in pulse energy for sample transformation was observed. A simple heat flow calculation demonstrated that the chemical energy released by the reaction, and the change in diffusion kinetics as the sample temperature exceeded the glass transition temperature of the amorphous alloy, are responsible for this sudden onset. The maximum temperature estimated from this calculation is below the melting point of the constituents, and the cooling rate is 107–108 K/s which is in agreement with the formation of amorphous alloy.
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68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
68.55.Nq Composition and phase identification
81.05.Kf Glasses (including metallic glasses)
64.70.P- Glass transitions of specific systems
64.70.Q- Theory and modeling of the glass transition

Observations of β‐tungsten deposited by low pressure chemical vapor deposition

D. C. Paine, J. C. Bravman, and C. Y. Yang

Appl. Phys. Lett. 50, 498 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.98156 (3 pages) | Cited 22 times

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Metastable β‐tungsten was identified, using transmission electron microscopy, in arrays of low pressure chemical vapor deposited contacts on patterned silicon wafers. In contrast, only α‐tungsten was found in films deposited onto bare silicon wafers under identical conditions. Thus, we have shown that contact wells etched through oxide can play a role in determining which tungsten phase is deposited by low pressure chemical vapor deposition. This effect was observed for a variety of furnace conditions (T=300–330 °C, H2/WF6=150:1–400:1). Transmission electron micrographs and selected area diffraction patterns are presented which illustrate the microstructural differences between the α‐ and β‐tungsten phases. Possible sources of oxygen or fluorine, impurities which are believed to stabilize β‐tungsten, are discussed and related to the geometry of the vias cut through oxide on patterned wafers.
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68.55.Nq Composition and phase identification
81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
81.05.Bx Metals, semimetals, and alloys

Study of structural faults in Ti‐diffused lithium niobate

M. E. Twigg, D. M. Maher, S. Nakahara, T. T. Sheng, and R. J. Holmes

Appl. Phys. Lett. 50, 501 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.98157 (3 pages) | Cited 6 times

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Transmission electron microscope studies of Ti‐doped, congruent lithium niobate (LiNbO3) have shown that extended structural faults are only present within the Ti‐diffused layer (i.e., the wave guiding region). Structural faults have also been observed in undoped Li‐deficient LiNbO3, though not in undoped control crystals of congruent and stoichiometric LiNbO3. In both Ti‐doped and Li‐deficient LiNbO3, crystal chemistry predicts an increase in the concentration of the point defects V′′′′′Nb and Nb....Li and therefore it is appealing to suggest that these defects are responsible for the creation of structural faults. Since the extent of these structural faults is tens of microns, they are clearly potential scattering sites for photons. In this regard, a systematic understanding of their origin and thermal stability is crucial to integrated optical device technologies based on LiNbO3 and on the Ti‐doped waveguide fabrication technique.
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61.72.Nn Stacking faults and other planar or extended defects
42.79.Gn Optical waveguides and couplers
81.05.Je Ceramics and refractories (including borides, carbides, hydrides, nitrides, oxides, and silicides)
42.82.-m Integrated optics

Microfabrication of molecular scale microstructures

H. W. Deckman, B. Abeles, J. H. Dunsmuir, and C. B. Roxlo

Appl. Phys. Lett. 50, 504 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.98158 (3 pages) | Cited 9 times

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Microfabrication techniques have been used to prepare a new class of molecular scale microporous materials. These materials are formed by chemically etching slots into alternate layers of a lithographically exposed amorphous superlattice cross section. The slot width is accurately controllable from 10 Å to more than 500 Å.
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81.65.-b Surface treatments
68.35.B- Structure of clean surfaces (and surface reconstruction)
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
68.65.-k Low-dimensional, mesoscopic, nanoscale and other related systems: structure and nonelectronic properties

Between explosive crystallization and amorphous regrowth: Inhomogeneous solidification upon pulsed‐laser annealing of amorphous silicon

J. J. P. Bruines, R. P. M. van Hal, B. H. Koek, M. P. A. Viegers, and H. M. J. Boots

Appl. Phys. Lett. 50, 507 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.98142 (3 pages) | Cited 7 times

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Si amorphized by Cu implantation has been irradiated by spatially uniform pulses of 7.5 ns duration from a frequency‐doubled neodymium:yttrium aluminum garnet laser. After irradiation the samples were examined by cross‐section transmission electron microscopy. A laterally random pattern of polycrystalline Si patches was found imbedded in amorphous material. At low‐energy densities a considerable fraction of the regrown Si was polycrystalline. With increasing energy density the amount of polycrystalline Si decreased, both at the surface and in total. These results are discussed in terms of the time available for the nucleation of polycrystalline Si at a liquid‐solid interface and the temperature profile in both the liquid and the solid material.
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81.30.Fb Solidification
81.40.Ef Cold working, work hardening; annealing, post-deformation annealing, quenching, tempering recovery, and crystallization
81.10.Aj Theory and models of crystal growth; physics and chemistry of crystal growth, crystal morphology, and orientation
64.70.D- Solid-liquid transitions

1/f noise in quartz crystal resonators in relation to acoustic losses and frequency dispersion

M. Planat and J. J. Gagnepain

Appl. Phys. Lett. 50, 510 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.98143 (3 pages) | Cited 4 times

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The 1/f frequency fluctuation of quartz crystal resonators between liquid helium and room temperature is investigated in relation with acoustic attenuation. Large attenuation is observed at 50 K, due to ionic Na+ impurity relaxation, at 20 K, corresponding to the interaction of the sound wave with thermal phonons, and below 7 K, which is a behavior already reported in amorphous glasses. A strong correlation is found between 1/f noise level and acoustic attenuation around the phonon‐phonon relaxation peak; this correlation is not observed on the Na+ impurity peak. Below 7 K, 1/f noise also increases in relation with losses. A possible physical mechanism for 1/f noise in quartz resonators is discussed.
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43.58.Kr Spectrum and frequency analyzers and filters; acoustical and electrical oscillographs; photoacoustic spectrometers; acoustical delay lines and resonators
43.35.Gk Phonons in crystal lattices, quantum acoustics
63.20.kg Phonon-phonon interactions
63.20.K- Phonon interactions

Interaction of hydrogen and thermal donor defects in silicon

A. Chantre, S. J. Pearton, L. C. Kimerling, K. D. Cummings, and W. C. Dautremont‐Smith

Appl. Phys. Lett. 50, 513 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.98144 (3 pages) | Cited 10 times

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We have studied the interaction of hydrogen with thermal donors in silicon using transient capacitance and current spectroscopy. We find that a large degree of thermal donor passivation (a factor of 40) can be achieved by hydrogen plasma exposure at 120 °C. The residual electrical activity is shown to arise from perturbed E(0.07) and E(0.15) donor states. Annealing at 200 °C almost completely reactivates the low concentration of thermal donors present in these samples. A model involving different incorporation sites for hydrogen is proposed to explain the results.
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71.55.Ht Other nonmetals
81.40.Rs Electrical and magnetic properties related to treatment conditions
61.72.Yx Interaction between different crystal defects; gettering effect
71.70.-d Level splitting and interactions

Mechanism of compensation in heavily silicon‐doped gallium arsenide grown by molecular beam epitaxy

J. Maguire, R. Murray, R. C. Newman, R. B. Beall, and J. J. Harris

Appl. Phys. Lett. 50, 516 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.98265 (3 pages) | Cited 81 times

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Silicon‐doped GaAs grown by molecular beam epitaxy has been characterized by Hall measurements, infrared local vibrational mode (LVM) absorption, secondary ion and laser source mass spectroscopy. Highly doped samples with [Si]∼3×1019 cm−3 show only a low carrier concentration of 8×1017 cm−3. LVM spectroscopy shows that SiGa donors are compensated predominantly by [Si‐X] complexes, where X has been assigned previously to a gallium vacancy (VGa). Other compensating impurities are not present in the layers at significant concentrations.
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73.50.Gr Charge carriers: generation, recombination, lifetime, trapping, mean free paths
68.55.Ln Defects and impurities: doping, implantation, distribution, concentration, etc.
78.30.-j Infrared and Raman spectra
78.40.Fy Semiconductors
73.61.Ey III-V semiconductors

Effect of rapid thermal annealing for the compositional disordering of Si‐implanted AlGaAs/GaAs superlattices

Junji Kobayashi, Toshiaki Fukunaga, Koichi Ishida, Hisao Nakashima, Jane D. Flood, Gad Bahir, and James L. Merz

Appl. Phys. Lett. 50, 519 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.98145 (3 pages) | Cited 12 times

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We have investigated the effect of rapid thermal annealing (RTA) for the compositional disordering of Si‐implanted AlGaAs/GaAs superlattices (SL) in comparison with that of furnace annealing (FA). By using RTA (970 °C, 10 s), the implantation damage can be eliminated without disordering the SL, while the disordering occurs when FA (850 °C, 30 min) is used. Secondary ion mass spectrometry analyses show that the difference between RTA and FA is due to the extent of Si diffusion into the AlGaAs/GaAs SL.
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68.65.-k Low-dimensional, mesoscopic, nanoscale and other related systems: structure and nonelectronic properties
81.40.Ef Cold working, work hardening; annealing, post-deformation annealing, quenching, tempering recovery, and crystallization
61.80.Jh Ion radiation effects
68.35.Fx Diffusion; interface formation

Field‐assisted bonding below 200 °C using metal and glass thin‐film interlayers

W. Y. Lee, F. Sequeda, J. Salem, and D. Chapman

Appl. Phys. Lett. 50, 522 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.98146 (3 pages) | Cited 6 times

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Bonding between similar or dissimilar surfaces with metal and glass thin‐film interlayers as well as bulk glass plates using an electric field assisted bonding technique at 160 °C or less is described. This low‐temperature field‐assisted bonding is achieved using, e.g., few μm thick glass films rf magnetron sputter deposited from Na or Li silicate glasses, and 0.05–1.0 μm thick Al, Sn, Mg, and Hf films. The bond strength thus achieved is found to be greater than the cohesive strength of the glass used. Results from x‐ray photoelectron spectroscopy analyses confirm the migration across the glass layer and the plating out on the cathode surfaces of mobile ions such as Na+ or Li+ during field‐assisted bonding. The migration and plating out of mobile ions can be detected in 10 s after the potential is applied and whether actual bonding between the metal and glass occurs or not. The possible bonding mechanism based on these XPS results is proposed.
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62.20.Qp Friction, tribology, and hardness
68.35.Gy Mechanical properties; surface strains
68.60.Bs Mechanical and acoustical properties
68.35.Fx Diffusion; interface formation

Fabrication and microwave measurement of a space harmonic monolithic structure

Clifford M. Krowne and Daniel McCarthy

Appl. Phys. Lett. 50, 525 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.98147 (3 pages)

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Theory, engineering design, fabrication, and experimental test of the first completely monolithic grating amplifier realized in silicon are described. Experimental results are presented for frequencies between 0.1 and 2.0 GHz at 300 K for the device, referred to as the solid state space harmonic amplifier structure. Electronic gain is about 1.5 dB/mm with a cold circuit loss of 4.6 dB/mm for the 200‐μm‐long interaction region device.
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84.40.Lj Microwave integrated electronics
84.30.Le Amplifiers
84.40.Az Waveguides, transmission lines, striplines
85.40.-e Microelectronics: LSI, VLSI, ULSI; integrated circuit fabrication technology

Large monolithic two‐dimensional arrays of GaInAsP/InP surface‐emitting lasers

Z. L. Liau and J. N. Walpole

Appl. Phys. Lett. 50, 528 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.98148 (3 pages) | Cited 16 times

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A 1 mm×3 mm monolithic two‐dimensional array (incoherent) of 112 mass‐transported buried‐heterostructure lasers with integrated beam deflectors has been fabricated with good uniformity. An average cw output of 14 mW per laser and an average optical flux of 57 W/cm2 have been obtained when the array is operated one section (approximately 14% of the total area) at a time. The total cw output of the entire array is thermally limited to 0.7 W.
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42.60.By Design of specific laser systems
42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.60.Da Resonators, cavities, amplifiers, arrays, and rings
42.60.Jf Beam characteristics: profile, intensity, and power; spatial pattern formation

Benzene chemisorption on amorphous silicon

N. Tache, Y. Chang, M. K. Kelly, G. Margaritondo, C. Quaresima, M. Capozi, P. Perfetti, and M. N. Piancastelli

Appl. Phys. Lett. 50, 531 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.98149 (2 pages) | Cited 5 times

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A stable chemisorption state was discovered for benzene on amorphous silicon at room temperature. Its establishment implies high reactivity and a catalytic role of the substrate in breaking C–H bonds. This suggests that amorphous silicon, similar to cleaved silicon, can catalyze interesting surface chemical reactions involving aromatic molecules.
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68.43.-h Chemisorption/physisorption: adsorbates on surfaces
82.65.+r Surface and interface chemistry; heterogeneous catalysis at surfaces
68.03.Fg Evaporation and condensation of liquids
68.43.Mn Adsorption kinetics

Synchrotron‐radiation‐induced surface nitridation of silicon at room temperature

F. Cerrina, B. Lai, G. M. Wells, J. R. Wiley, D. G. Kilday, and G. Margaritondo

Appl. Phys. Lett. 50, 533 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.98150 (2 pages) | Cited 25 times

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We demonstrate that unmonochromatized synchrotron radiation stimulates the formation of surface‐reacted nitride species on silicon at room temperature. The experimental evidence was obtained by exposing a NH3‐covered Si(111) surface to synchrotron radiation. This class of phenomena is relevant for the manufacturing technology of submicron electronic devices.
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82.50.-m Photochemistry
79.60.-i Photoemission and photoelectron spectra
81.65.-b Surface treatments
82.65.+r Surface and interface chemistry; heterogeneous catalysis at surfaces

Very high transconductance InGaAs/InP junction field‐effect transistor with submicrometer gate

J. Y. Raulin, E. Thorngren, M. A. di Forte‐Poisson, M. Razeghi, and G. Colomer

Appl. Phys. Lett. 50, 535 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.98151 (2 pages) | Cited 7 times

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A very high transconductance (260 mS/mm) has been achieved for the first time with an InGaAs/InP junction field‐effect transistor. The transistor was fabricated using a chemical etching technique which allowed the fabrication of submicrometer gate (0.5 μm). Very low values of access resistance were obtained using a self‐aligned technology.
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85.30.Tv Field effect devices
85.30.De Semiconductor-device characterization, design, and modeling
73.40.Kp III-V semiconductor-to-semiconductor contacts, p-n junctions, and heterojunctions

Quantum well surface‐plasmon oscillator

A. Jay Palmer

Appl. Phys. Lett. 50, 537 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.98152 (3 pages) | Cited 1 time

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We identify a new type of electromagnetic oscillator which utilizes the negative differential conductivity of a quantum well tunnel junction to drive surface‐plasmon oscillations on the outside boundaries of the junction. We calculate the complex propagation constant as a function of frequency for the antisymmetric gap‐mode surface plasmon on a state of the art GaAs/AlGaAs double‐barrier tunnel junction. The surface‐plasmon gain coefficient is found to be positive for frequencies up to 5 GHz. Single‐mode oscillation of the surface plasmon at frequencies near 5 GHz is predicted on a tunnel junction with a lateral dimension equal to about 150 μm.
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84.30.Ng Oscillators, pulse generators, and function generators
79.60.Dp Adsorbed layers and thin films
79.70.+q Field emission, ionization, evaporation, and desorption
73.20.Mf Collective excitations (including excitons, polarons, plasmons and other charge-density excitations)
73.40.Gk Tunneling

Ga0.47In0.53As/InP superlattices grown by chemical beam epitaxy: Absorption, photoluminescence excitation, and photocurrent spectroscopies

W. T. Tsang, E. F. Schubert, S. N. G. Chu, K. Tai, and R. Sauer

Appl. Phys. Lett. 50, 540 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.98153 (3 pages) | Cited 11 times

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Superlattices of Ga0.47In0.53As/InP grown by chemical beam epitaxy (CBE) were studied in detail by transmission electron microscopy, absorption, photoluminescence (PL), photoluminescence excitation (PLE), and photocurrent (PC) spectroscopies. Results from all these characterization techniques independently confirmed the superior qualities of the CBE‐grown Ga0.47In0.53As/InP superlattices over previously reported results. Photoluminescence linewidths were close to those obtained from CBE‐grown single quantum wells. All of the observed excitonic absorption peaks in absorption, PLE, and PC spectra were well resolved and clearly assigned including the forbidden E13h transition for the first time. In fact, these excitonic structures were still observed in the PC spectra at temperatures as high as 102 °C.
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68.65.-k Low-dimensional, mesoscopic, nanoscale and other related systems: structure and nonelectronic properties
78.66.Fd III-V semiconductors
78.66.Hf II-VI semiconductors
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
78.55.Cr III-V semiconductors

Upper critical fields and high superconducting transition temperatures of La1.85Sr0.15CuO4 and La1.85Ba0.15CuO4

D. W. Capone, D. G. Hinks, J. D. Jorgensen, and K. Zhang

Appl. Phys. Lett. 50, 543 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.98154 (2 pages) | Cited 31 times

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The superconducting transition temperature Tc of La1.85Sr0.15CuO4 is measured to be 34.7 K (midpoint) with a transition width (10–90%) of 2.6 K. The critical field slope at Tc is 2.13 T/K. Using the Werthamer, Helfand, and Hohenberg expression in the dirty limit we estimate the upper critical field Hc2(0) to be at least 50 T for this system. The measured transition width broadens initially with increasing field to 4 K, then saturates at this value for fields above 2 T. The critical field slope for the lower Tc material La1.85Ba0.15CuO4 is measured to be 1.78 T/K, which yields an Hc2(0) of at least 36 T.
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74.10.+v Occurrence, potential candidates
74.25.Sv Critical currents
74.62.Bf Effects of material synthesis, crystal structure, and chemical composition
74.25.Op Mixed states, critical fields, and surface sheaths
74.70.-b Superconducting materials other than cuprates

Electric field distribution of electron emitter surfaces

M. Tagawa, S. Takenobu, N. Ohmae, and M. Umeno

Appl. Phys. Lett. 50, 545 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.98155 (2 pages) | Cited 3 times

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The electric field distribution of a tungsten field emitter surface and a LaB6 thermionic emitter surface has been studied. The computer simulation of electric field distribution on the emitter surface was carried out with a charge simulation method. The electric field distribution of the LaB6 thermionic emitter was experimentally evaluated by the Schottky plot. Two independent equations are necessary for obtaining local electric field and work function; the Fowler–Nordheim equation and the equation of total energy distribution of emitted electron being used to evaluate the electric field distribution of the tungsten field emitter. The experimental results agreed with the computer simulation.
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79.70.+q Field emission, ionization, evaporation, and desorption
79.40.+z Thermionic emission
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