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3 Aug 1987

Volume 51, Issue 5, pp. 293-377

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Power‐dependent switching in a coherent nonlinear directional coupler in the presence of saturation

E. Caglioti, S. Trillo, S. Wabnitz, B. Daino, and G. I. Stegeman

Appl. Phys. Lett. 51, 293 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.98476 (3 pages) | Cited 19 times

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The fundamental limitations for all‐optical switching in a nonlinear directional coupler due to the saturation of the nonlinearity have been obtained by solving analytically the nonlinear coupled‐mode equations. We found that there is a minimum value required for the saturation index change to obtain efficient switching, and that the number of powers at which switching occurs at one beat length can double.
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42.65.Pc Optical bistability, multistability, and switching, including local field effects
42.79.Ta Optical computers, logic elements, interconnects, switches; neural networks
42.79.Gn Optical waveguides and couplers
42.82.-m Integrated optics

Fabrication of ion‐exchanged channel waveguides directly into integrated circuit mask plates

S. Honkanen, A. Tervonen, H. von Bagh, A. Salin, and M. Leppihalme

Appl. Phys. Lett. 51, 296 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.98448 (3 pages) | Cited 3 times

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Optical channel waveguides have been fabricated into integrated circuit lithography mask plates by silver‐sodium ion exchange. The process combines the advantages of Ag thin‐film ion sources and the accurate and reliable patterning of chromium films on mask plates. The process is potentially suitable for cheap mass production, since no lithography is needed during the actual waveguide fabrication. The tailoring of waveguide cross sections by modifying the electric field distribution inside the glass is also presented.
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42.79.Gn Optical waveguides and couplers
85.40.Bh Computer-aided design of microcircuits; layout and modeling
81.05.Bx Metals, semimetals, and alloys
42.82.-m Integrated optics

Enhanced beam coupling modulation using the polarization properties of photorefractive GaAs

Afshin Partovi, Elsa M. Garmire, and Li‐Jen Cheng

Appl. Phys. Lett. 51, 299 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.98449 (3 pages) | Cited 6 times

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We report observation of a rotation in the polarization of the two photorefractive recording beams in GaAs for a configuration with the internally generated space‐charge field along the 〈110〉 crystallographic orientation. This rotation is a result of simultaneous constructive and destructive beam coupling in each beam for the optical electric field components along the two electro‐optically induced principal dielectric axes of the crystal. By turning one of the beams on and off, the intensity of the other beam after the crystal and a polarization analyzer can be modulated by as much as 500%. This result is of particular importance for optical information processing applications.
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78.20.Jq Electro-optical effects
85.60.-q Optoelectronic devices
42.79.Hp Optical processors, correlators, and modulators
42.30.Va Image forming and processing

Highly nondegenerate four‐wave mixing in semiconductor lasers due to spectral hole burning

Govind P. Agrawal

Appl. Phys. Lett. 51, 302 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.98450 (3 pages) | Cited 12 times

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Spectral hole burning in semiconductor lasers manifests as a nonlinear suppression of the mode gain by a few percent. In the presence of a probe wave, the same mechanism can lead to highly nondegenerate four‐wave mixing (NDFWM) by creating the dynamic gain and index gratings at the beat frequency of the pump and probe waves. Since the grating efficiency is governed by the intraband relaxation time (typically <1 ps), significant NDFWM can occur even for a pump‐probe detuning ∼100 GHz. We present the results for the conjugate reflectivity and the probe transmittivity when an InGaAsP laser is used as a traveling‐wave amplifier.
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42.65.Ky Frequency conversion; harmonic generation, including higher-order harmonic generation
42.60.Da Resonators, cavities, amplifiers, arrays, and rings
42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.60.Fc Modulation, tuning, and mode locking

‘‘Oxide‐free’’ tip for scanning tunneling microscopy

R. J. Colton, S. M. Baker, J. D. Baldeschwieler, and W. J. Kaiser

Appl. Phys. Lett. 51, 305 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.98451 (3 pages) | Cited 16 times

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We report a new tip for scanning tunneling microscopy and a tip repair procedure that allows one to reproducibly obtain atomic images of highly oriented pyrolytic graphite with previously inoperable tips. The tips are shown to be relatively oxide‐free and highly resistant to oxidation. The tips are fabricated with graphite by two distinct methods.
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68.35.B- Structure of clean surfaces (and surface reconstruction)
07.78.+s Electron, positron, and ion microscopes; electron diffractometers
07.79.Cz Scanning tunneling microscopes
61.05.-a Techniques for structure determination

Point defect generation and enhanced diffusion in silicon due to tantalum silicide overlays

S. M. Hu

Appl. Phys. Lett. 51, 308 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.98452 (3 pages) | Cited 32 times

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Tantalum silicide deposited directly on monocrystalline silicon substrates and annealed at 950 °C causes enhanced diffusion of both boron and antimony in buried layers. The effect is taken as evidence of vacancy supersaturation, since it is known that antimony diffuses in silicon by an almost entirely vacancy mechanism. It also indicates a substantial vacancy component in boron diffusion, at least at 950 °C, or lower. The simultaneous occurrence of boron and antimony enhanced diffusion contrasts with the nitridation effect on diffusion previously reported. That the enhanced diffusion occurred in buried layers excludes the snow‐plow mechanism. The Si:Ta ratio of the sputter‐deposited tantalum silicide is slightly less than 2. The interpretation is that further silicidation generates vacancies by removing silicon atoms from the silicon substrate. Enhanced diffusion was not detectable when there was a 150‐nm intervening layer of polycrystalline silicon film between the silicide and the monocrystalline silicon substrate, indicating that polycrystalline silicon is an effective sink for excess vacancies, perhaps more than it is for excess interstitials.
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61.72.Bb Theories and models of crystal defects
61.72.jd Vacancies
61.72.jj Interstitials
66.30.J- Diffusion of impurities

Epitaxial yttrium silicide on (111) silicon by vacuum annealing

M. Gurvitch, A. F. J. Levi, R. T. Tung, and S. Nakahara

Appl. Phys. Lett. 51, 311 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.98453 (3 pages) | Cited 29 times

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Epitaxial YSi2−x films have been fabricated. The smooth 430‐Å‐thick silicide films on Si (111) substrates were characterized by a Rutherford backscattering minimum channeling yield χmin =8%, establishing YSi2−x as one of the best known epitaxial silicides. Results of electrical measurements are also presented.
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81.15.Kk Vapor phase epitaxy; growth from vapor phase
68.60.Bs Mechanical and acoustical properties
73.61.At Metal and metallic alloys
73.30.+y Surface double layers, Schottky barriers, and work functions

Ion‐beam‐induced epitaxy and interfacial segregation of Au in amorphous silicon

R. G. Elliman, D. C. Jacobson, J. Linnros, and J. M. Poate

Appl. Phys. Lett. 51, 314 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.98454 (3 pages) | Cited 12 times

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The segregation and diffusion of Au are examined during ion‐beam‐induced solid phase epitaxial crystallization of Au‐implanted amorphous silicon layers. Epitaxy was induced at temperatures as low as 220 °C by irradiation with 1.5 MeV Ar ions. At these temperatures Au is segregated to form a narrow layer at the moving crystal/amorphous interface. The size of the segregated layer depends on the velocity of the interface compared to the Au diffusivity in amorphous Si. The growth rate for ion‐beam‐induced epitaxy is found to be independent of Au concentration and near‐complete epitaxial crystallization of the amorphous layers can be achieved, even for Au concentrations ∼2 at. %.
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81.15.Np Solid phase epitaxy; growth from solid phases
68.55.Ln Defects and impurities: doping, implantation, distribution, concentration, etc.
61.80.Jh Ion radiation effects
68.35.B- Structure of clean surfaces (and surface reconstruction)

Dynamic consolidation of diamond powder into polycrystalline diamond

David K. Potter and Thomas J. Ahrens

Appl. Phys. Lett. 51, 317 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.98427 (3 pages) | Cited 11 times

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The formation of a polycrystalline solid compact, by fusing an initially porous aggregate of diamond crystals under dynamic shock pressure (7.5–18 GPa), is shown to depend critically on the size of the initial crystals. Porous aggregates of 100–150 μm diameter crystals upon shock compaction produced compacts. These exhibited pronounced fracturing of the individual crystals and showed no evidence of fusion. Aggregates consisting of ultrafine crystals (<5 μm) also exhibited minimal consolidation. However, samples composed of crystals in the range 4–8 μm produced strong fused compacts of polycrystalline diamond. A model calculation indicates that at 10 GPa less than 0.07 mass fraction of the diamond powder can be melted and this molten material is quenched in 0.8 ns for 8‐μm‐diam crystals.
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81.20.Ev Powder processing: powder metallurgy, compaction, sintering, mechanical alloying, and granulation
81.05.Je Ceramics and refractories (including borides, carbides, hydrides, nitrides, oxides, and silicides)
62.50.-p High-pressure effects in solids and liquids
81.30.Dz Phase diagrams of other materials

Enhancement of quantum confined Stark effect in a graded gap quantum well

K. Nishi and T. Hiroshima

Appl. Phys. Lett. 51, 320 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.98428 (3 pages) | Cited 33 times

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A graded gap quantum well structure, where the band gap is linearly changing along the growth direction, is proposed for the enhancement of quantum confined Stark effect. Theoretical calculations show that the ground‐state exciton peak energy shifts by a larger amount than in a usual square‐shaped quantum well under an applied electric field. The wave function modifications in this quantum well result in a smaller decrease of the exciton oscillator strength, according to the electric field applied. These effects reveal the possibility of achieving high‐performance optical modulators or other devices which utilize the quantum confined Stark effect.
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73.40.Kp III-V semiconductor-to-semiconductor contacts, p-n junctions, and heterojunctions
73.21.-b Electron states and collective excitations in multilayers, quantum wells, mesoscopic, and nanoscale systems
78.66.Fd III-V semiconductors
78.66.Hf II-VI semiconductors
42.79.Hp Optical processors, correlators, and modulators

Transient electrical conductivity of nonequilibrium carriers excited by subpicosecond optical pulses in GaAs

A. S. Vengurlekar and Sudhanshu S. Jha

Appl. Phys. Lett. 51, 323 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.98990 (3 pages) | Cited 4 times

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We calculate the time‐dependent electrical conductivity σ(t) for the nonequilibrium carriers excited by a subpicosecond laser pulse in a polar semiconductor like GaAs. The photoexcited carriers are assumed to relax towards equilibrium by emitting longitudinal optical (LO) phonons in a cascade via the strong Fröhlich interaction. We show that σ(t), obtained in the picosecond time domain, has a highly nonlinear time evolution. It develops a pronounced dip, with its value becoming negative, whenever the generated low density carrier distribution is sharply peaked initially at energy ϵ≂mℏωLO, m=integer, ℏωLO being the long wavelength LO phonon energy.
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72.20.Jv Charge carriers: generation, recombination, lifetime, and trapping
72.80.Ey III-V and II-VI semiconductors
63.20.K- Phonon interactions
72.40.+w Photoconduction and photovoltaic effects

Ohmic contacts to n‐GaAs using In/Pd metallization

L. H. Allen, L. S. Hung, K. L. Kavanagh, J. R. Phillips, A. J. Yu, and J. W. Mayer

Appl. Phys. Lett. 51, 326 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.98429 (2 pages) | Cited 30 times

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Ohmic contacts to n‐GaAs (Si doped at 2×1018 cm−3) with contact resistances of 0.7–1.5×10−6 Ω cm2 have been formed with deposited layers of In and Pd. The layers were sequentially evaporated and then annealed at 500 °C for 20 s to form In3Pd and a top layer of In. In addition a thin (≊200 Å) reacted layer was formed at the GaAs interface. Uniform interface morphology was observed with no evidence of localized reaction.
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73.40.Vz Semiconductor-metal-semiconductor structures
85.30.De Semiconductor-device characterization, design, and modeling
73.40.Cg Contact resistance, contact potential

Determination of the electron diffusion length in p‐GaP by intensity modulated photocurrent measurements with an electrolyte contact

R. Peat and L. M. Peter

Appl. Phys. Lett. 51, 328 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.98430 (3 pages) | Cited 6 times

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Sinusoidal intensity modulation in the frequency range 1 Hz–65 kHz has been used to study the frequency dependence of the photocurrent at the p‐GaP/0.5 M H2SO4 junction. It is shown that the high‐frequency response is independent of surface recombination, so that the diffusion length of electrons and the absorption coefficient of the semiconductor can be derived. In the case of p‐GaP, the electron diffusion length was found to be (7.9±0.8)×10−6 cm, and the absorption coefficient at 442 nm was calculated to be (3.2±0.3)×104 cm−1.
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73.40.Mr Semiconductor-electrolyte contacts
72.40.+w Photoconduction and photovoltaic effects
72.20.Jv Charge carriers: generation, recombination, lifetime, and trapping
73.25.+i Surface conductivity and carrier phenomena

Influence of implant induced vacancies and interstitials on boron diffusion in silicon

S. Solmi, R. Angelucci, F. Cembali, M. Servidori, and M. Anderle

Appl. Phys. Lett. 51, 331 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.98431 (3 pages) | Cited 38 times

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A dependence of boron anomalous diffusion on defect depth position has been observed after furnace and electron beam annealing of samples damaged with 28Si ions implanted at different energies. This behavior was correlated with the vacancy and interstitial excesses, produced under bombardment in the surface region and in depth, respectively. The spatial separation of these point defects was evidenced by the analysis of the intensity profiles obtained by double‐crystal x‐ray diffraction.
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61.72.Bb Theories and models of crystal defects
61.72.jd Vacancies
61.72.jj Interstitials
66.30.J- Diffusion of impurities
61.80.Jh Ion radiation effects

Concentration profile and effective concentration in acceptor hydrogenation experiments

Samuel Cheng‐Sheng Pan and Chih‐Tang Sah

Appl. Phys. Lett. 51, 334 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.98432 (3 pages)

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The effective dopant concentration determined from the capacitance minimum in the high‐frequency capacitance‐voltage curve is related to the actual majority‐carrier density profile through a simple integration formula. Based on this relationship, the nonuniform substrate doping effect on the analysis of group‐III acceptor hydrogenation experiments in silicon is examined. It is found that the procedure in determining the kinetic coefficients by fitting the effective dopant concentration versus avalanche injection or annealing time curves is appropriate if the hydrogen concentration is assumed uniform throughout the semiconductor surface space‐charge layer.
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61.72.sd Impurity concentration
61.72.sh Impurity distribution
61.72.sm Impurity gradients
73.20.Hb Impurity and defect levels; energy states of adsorbed species
73.40.Qv Metal-insulator-semiconductor structures (including semiconductor-to-insulator)
81.65.-b Surface treatments

Rapid thermal oxidation of silicon monoxide

E. Fogarassy, A. Slaoui, C. Fuchs, and J. L. Regolini

Appl. Phys. Lett. 51, 337 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.98433 (3 pages) | Cited 11 times

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Silicon monoxide and silicon dioxide form insulating films that are commonly used in microelectronic devices. In the technology of devices containing silicon, the insulating silicon dioxide films are formed on the silicon wafers using conventional methods of thermal oxidation. This technique, which requires long periods of annealing (30–60 min) and high temperature (≂1000 °C), is known to induce different types of physical degradation in the device. In this letter, we demonstrate the possibility of converting silicon monoxide deposited at room temperature to silicon dioxide by rapid thermal annealing. Although the annealing temperature is high (700–1100 °C) the time is very short (within seconds), so that this process may still be compatible with the requirements of low‐temperature processing.
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81.05.Je Ceramics and refractories (including borides, carbides, hydrides, nitrides, oxides, and silicides)
81.65.-b Surface treatments
81.15.-z Methods of deposition of films and coatings; film growth and epitaxy
85.40.Bh Computer-aided design of microcircuits; layout and modeling

Epitaxial growth quality optimization by supercomputer

Shaun Clarke and Dimitri D. Vvedensky

Appl. Phys. Lett. 51, 340 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.98434 (3 pages) | Cited 34 times

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Supercomputer simulations of molecular beam epitaxial growth are applied to modeling processing profiles. Illustration is provided by investigating the relative advantages of high incident beam flux growth, interrupted periodically to allow the growth front to relax, versus continual growth at a relatively low deposition rate.
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81.15.Hi Molecular, atomic, ion, and chemical beam epitaxy

Formation and nondestructive characterization of ion implanted silicon‐on‐insulator layers

J. Narayan, S. Y. Kim, K. Vedam, and R. Manukonda

Appl. Phys. Lett. 51, 343 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.98435 (3 pages) | Cited 21 times

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High‐temperature oxygen ion implantation has been used to form buried oxide layers in silicon single crystals. The ion implantation and substrate variables, particularly the substrate temperature, were optimized to obtain silicon layers with controlled microstructures near the surface. The as‐implanted specimens were subsequently annealed at high temperatures to form a buried SiO2 layer with sharp interfaces and to minimize dislocation densities in the top silicon layers. The specimens were characterized by cross‐section transmission electron microscopy and these results were compared with those obtained using spectroscopic ellipsometry. We discuss the application of the nondestructive scanning ellipsometry technique in the characterization of silicon‐on‐insulator materials.
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68.35.B- Structure of clean surfaces (and surface reconstruction)
68.35.Dv Composition, segregation; defects and impurities
68.55.Ln Defects and impurities: doping, implantation, distribution, concentration, etc.
73.61.Ng Insulators

Si3N4‐Si interface formation by catalytic nitridation using nitrogen exposures on alkali metal overlayers and removal of the catalyst: N2/Na/Si (100) 2×1

P. Soukiassian, T. M. Gentle, K. P. Schuette, M. H. Bakshi, and Z. Hurych

Appl. Phys. Lett. 51, 346 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.98436 (3 pages) | Cited 8 times

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Core level photoemission spectroscopy using synchrotron radiation was performed to study the activity of sodium on the nitridation of the (100) face of silicon. At room temperature, the exposition to molecular nitrogen of a Si (100) surface modified by a sodium monolayer induced the formation of a SiNx compound. The sodium catalyst is removed from the surface by thermal desorption at moderate temperature. Subsequently, a clean (sodium free) Si3N4‐Si interface was formed at a much lower temperature than without the alkali metal.
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68.35.Fx Diffusion; interface formation
82.65.+r Surface and interface chemistry; heterogeneous catalysis at surfaces
81.65.-b Surface treatments

Lattice relaxation of pressure‐induced deep centers in GaAs:Si

M. F. Li, P. Y. Yu, E. R. Weber, and W. Hansen

Appl. Phys. Lett. 51, 349 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.98437 (3 pages) | Cited 39 times

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Deep centers induced by hydrostatic pressure in GaAs:Si have been studied by deep level transient spectroscopy and constant temperature capacitance transient techniques. The capture behavior of these centers has been studied in detail and found to be consistent with the multiphonon emission theory. The pressure coefficients of the ionization energy and the barrier height are consistent with the large lattice relaxation model proposed by D. V. Lang and R. A. Logan [Phys. Rev. Lett. 39, 635 (1977)].
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71.55.Eq III-V semiconductors

Measurements of the optical properties of liquid silicon and germanium using nanosecond time‐resolved ellipsometry

G. E. Jellison and D. H. Lowndes

Appl. Phys. Lett. 51, 352 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.98438 (3 pages) | Cited 57 times

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The optical properties of liquid silicon and germanium have been determined at several laser wavelengths from 1.96 to 3.71 eV, using time‐resolved ellipsometric measurements during pulsed laser melting. The results from these transient melting experiments are compared with results from the literature for materials held above their melting temperatures for long periods of time. The results for liquid germanium agree well with those of J. N. Hodgson [Philos. Mag. 6, 509 (1961)], but the results for liquid silicon disagree with the results of K. M. Shvarev, B. A. Baum, and P. V. Gel’d [High Temp. 15, 548 (1977)].
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78.20.Ci Optical constants (including refractive index, complex dielectric constant, absorption, reflection and transmission coefficients, emissivity)
61.80.Ba Ultraviolet, visible, and infrared radiation effects (including laser radiation)

Role of Hg in junction formation in ion‐implanted HgCdTe

L. O. Bubulac and W. E. Tennant

Appl. Phys. Lett. 51, 355 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.98439 (3 pages) | Cited 14 times

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The present work clarifies the role of Hg diffusion in forming ion‐implanted junctions in HgCdTe. Two experiments indicate that displaced Hg acts as a limited diffusion source. The first experiment contrasts n/p junction electrical profiles in two HgCdTe wafers, one p doped primarily by cation vacancies and the other primarily by the addition of As in the liquid phase epitaxy melt. The second experiment compares the carrier concentration near the junction with the residual net background doping of the sample. The results indicate that Hg released from the implant region operates as a limited diffusion source in the post‐implant anneal process. Adjusting these material and process parameters allows n‐on‐p junctions to be formed with a controllable electrical profile.
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73.40.Lq Other semiconductor-to-semiconductor contacts, p-n junctions, and heterojunctions
66.30.Lw Diffusion of other defects
61.72.sd Impurity concentration
61.72.sh Impurity distribution
61.72.sm Impurity gradients
85.30.De Semiconductor-device characterization, design, and modeling

Picosecond temporal resolution photoemissive sampling

A. M. Weiner, P. S. D. Lin, and R. B. Marcus

Appl. Phys. Lett. 51, 358 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.98440 (3 pages) | Cited 5 times

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Sampling measurements of electrical transients generated photoconductively on a 5‐μm gold coplanar transmission line on GaAs were performed via multiphoton photoemission. A temporal resolution of 5 ps was achieved, with a voltage sensitivity of 10 mV/(Hz)1/2. These results confirm that the temporal resolution attainable by this technique is enhanced when the dimensions of the structure under examination are reduced.
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72.40.+w Photoconduction and photovoltaic effects
84.70.+p High-current and high-voltage technology: power systems; power transmission lines and cables
79.60.Jv Interfaces; heterostructures; nanostructures
73.40.Ns Metal-nonmetal contacts

Raman scattering study of folded acoustic phonons in GaAs/InxGa1−xAs strained‐layer superlattices

D. J. Lockwood, M. W. C. Dharma‐wardana, W. T. Moore, and R. L. S. Devine

Appl. Phys. Lett. 51, 361 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.98441 (3 pages) | Cited 10 times

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The excitation of zone‐folded longitudinal acoustic phonons in GaAs/InxGa1−xAs strained‐layer superlattices is observed by Raman scattering. The Raman data agree well with theory and are consistent with high indium concentrations achieved in the fabrication of these metastable superlattices of good crystalline quality.
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78.30.Fs III-V and II-VI semiconductors
63.20.D- Phonon states and bands, normal modes, and phonon dispersion
68.65.-k Low-dimensional, mesoscopic, nanoscale and other related systems: structure and nonelectronic properties
68.60.Bs Mechanical and acoustical properties

Indium phosphide shallow homojunction solar cells made by metalorganic chemical vapor deposition

M. B. Spitzer, C. J. Keavney, S. M. Vernon, and V. E. Haven

Appl. Phys. Lett. 51, 364 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.98442 (3 pages) | Cited 11 times

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The fabrication of highly efficient indium phosphide solar cells is described. The cells are formed by metalorganic chemical vapor deposition. A shallow homojunction design is discussed and total area air mass zero efficiency of 17.9% is reported; air mass 1.5 efficiency is 20.4%. Electrical characterization identifying loss mechanisms is made, and areas for possible improvement are summarized.
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84.60.Jt Photoelectric conversion
81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)
81.15.Kk Vapor phase epitaxy; growth from vapor phase
73.40.Kp III-V semiconductor-to-semiconductor contacts, p-n junctions, and heterojunctions
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