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10 Aug 1987

Volume 51, Issue 6, pp. 381-465

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Homogeneous gain saturation in 1.5 μm InGaAsP traveling‐wave semiconductor laser amplifiers

Takaaki Mukai, Kyo Inoue, and Tadashi Saitoh

Appl. Phys. Lett. 51, 381 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.98424 (3 pages) | Cited 15 times

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Spectral line broadening in semiconductor lasers is studied experimentally through the gain saturation characteristics of 1.5 μm InGaAsP traveling‐wave laser amplifiers. Wide signal gain spectrum under the injection of an intense saturating signal is measured using a weak probe signal. The saturated signal gain spectrum is found to coincide exactly with the unsaturated spectrum under a less biased condition, thus verifying that the semiconductor laser gain saturates homogeneously over the entire gain spectrum. Cross‐saturation characteristics between the two signal channels having identical input powers are also investigated and found to be in good agreement with theoretical calculations based on the homogeneous gain model. The degree of gain saturation is confirmed to be uniquely determined by the total output power from both channels.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.60.Jf Beam characteristics: profile, intensity, and power; spatial pattern formation
42.60.Da Resonators, cavities, amplifiers, arrays, and rings

Low‐loss optical waveguides in lithium tantalate by vapor diffusion

O. Eknoyan, D. W. Yoon, and H. F. Taylor

Appl. Phys. Lett. 51, 384 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.98425 (3 pages) | Cited 6 times

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Planar and channel optical waveguides have been produced in Y‐cut LiTaO3 substrates by zinc diffusion from the gaseous phase at 800 °C. Prism coupler measurements on planar waveguides diffused for 6 h indicate effective index changes of 0.0063 and 0.0033 for TE and TM polarizations, respectively, with effective diffusion depths of 3.5 and 3.9 μm for the two polarizations. Losses in channel waveguides at 0.633 μm wavelength were 1.0±0.2 dB/cm for TE polarized fields, as compared with 4.7±1.0 dB/cm measured on companion samples produced by the conventional Ti indiffusion process at 1150 °C. Electro‐optic modulation has been demonstrated in channel waveguide interferometers produced by this technique. Based on electron microprobe analysis, a surface Zn concentration of ∼1.3×1021 cm−3 has been determined.
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42.79.Gn Optical waveguides and couplers
66.30.J- Diffusion of impurities
78.20.Ci Optical constants (including refractive index, complex dielectric constant, absorption, reflection and transmission coefficients, emissivity)
78.20.Jq Electro-optical effects

Complete single longitudinal mode oscillation in a GaAlAs/GaAs distributed feedback laser with a modulated stripe width structure fabricated using reactive ion etching

Yoshiaki Nakano and Kunio Tada

Appl. Phys. Lett. 51, 387 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.98426 (3 pages) | Cited 3 times

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A modulated stripe width structure (MSW) has been applied to a GaAlAs/GaAs distributed feedback buried heterostructure laser to obtain complete single longitudinal mode oscillation. An MSW device having a gradual modulation scheme and antireflecting films on the cleaved facets has been fabricated using reactive ion etching (RIE). Principal results include realization of a reactive ion etched second‐order grating with the grooves as deep as 0.15 μm after regrowth and a modulated stripe having extremely fine definition made possible by RIE. The device had a spectrum which agreed markedly well with an analytical result. The effective functioning of the MSW structure has thereby been confirmed experimentally.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.60.By Design of specific laser systems
42.60.Fc Modulation, tuning, and mode locking
81.65.-b Surface treatments

Chirped gratings for efficient coupling into nonlinear waveguides

R. Moshrefzadeh, B. Svensson, Mai Xu, C. T. Seaton, and G. I. Stegeman

Appl. Phys. Lett. 51, 390 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.98399 (2 pages) | Cited 3 times

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We show experimentally that chirped gratings can be used to obtain high coupling efficiencies into waveguides containing media with an intensity‐dependent refractive index.
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42.79.Dj Gratings
42.79.Gn Optical waveguides and couplers
42.82.-m Integrated optics

Polarization bistability in external cavity semiconductor lasers

T. Fujita, A. Schremer, and C. L. Tang

Appl. Phys. Lett. 51, 392 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.98400 (3 pages) | Cited 13 times

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Polarization bistability between the transverse electric (TE) and transverse magnetic (TM) modes is observed in an external cavity semiconductor laser. Hysteresis in the polarization‐resolved output power is obtained by controlling the optical feedback power of the TE mode via an intracavity electro‐optic modulator. Transitions between single external‐cavity frequencies of TE and TM modes are also demonstrated. Nonlinear gain saturation is the origin of this bistability.
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42.60.Da Resonators, cavities, amplifiers, arrays, and rings
42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.60.Jf Beam characteristics: profile, intensity, and power; spatial pattern formation
42.65.Pc Optical bistability, multistability, and switching, including local field effects

Implications for a short wavelength laser experiment based on a theory of quasi‐channeling phenomenon for electrons

Henry Makowitz

Appl. Phys. Lett. 51, 395 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.98401 (3 pages)

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The theory of electron and positron channeling and radiation production in crystals has been extended to macroscopic‐scale systems. The new theory, named QCP theory (quasi‐channeling phenomenon), examines macroscopic systems that exhibit periodicity along the axis of beam propagation, specifically, periodic electrostatic fields; the dimensions of the field periodicity (lz) are much greater than typical interatomic lattice spacing (lL), e.g., lz≫lL, but much smaller than a typical wiggler wavelength lw, e.g., lw≫lz. The feasibility of a laser based on this predicted new phenomenon is examined in this letter. Differences between the properties of the proposed quasi‐channeling radiation and radiation produced by wigglers and free‐electron lasers (FEL’s) are discussed. System lengths a factor of 103 shorter than FEL’s are expected, with favorable scaling for below 500 eV laser photon output energies. A 500‐eV QCP laser system with a gain of 1 and a length of 1 m is predicted, based on extrapolations of existing storage‐ring technology.
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42.55.Rz Doped-insulator lasers and other solid state lasers
61.85.+p Channeling phenomena (blocking, energy loss, etc.)
85.60.Jb Light-emitting devices
41.60.Cr Free-electron lasers

Interferometric generation of high‐power, microwave frequency, optical harmonics

Elliot Eichen

Appl. Phys. Lett. 51, 398 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.98402 (3 pages) | Cited 1 time

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A new technique for sinusoidal intensity modulation of light at microwave frequencies using a frequency modulated semiconductor laser and an interferometer is described. This technique can be more efficient than direct amplitude modulation and, since sidebands at harmonics of the modulation frequency are generated, is capable of reaching higher frequencies than direct modulation. The highest observed frequency (18 GHz) was generated by direct modulation of a laser diode at 9 GHz, and was limited by the bandwidth of available detectors. Frequencies in excess of 100 GHz can be obtained using suitable detectors.
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42.65.Ky Frequency conversion; harmonic generation, including higher-order harmonic generation
84.40.Ba Antennas: theory, components and accessories
42.25.Lc Birefringence
42.25.Hz Interference

Evaluation of second‐order hyperpolarizabilities for systems with low‐energy double transitions by the three‐level model

H. Suzuki and K. Sukegawa

Appl. Phys. Lett. 51, 401 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.98989 (2 pages) | Cited 1 time

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Second‐order hyperpolarizabilities have been calculated by the three‐level model for systems having low‐energy double transitions. In the three‐level model, the second excited state, in addition to the first excited and ground states, is explicitly taken into account. The second‐order hyperpolarizabilities calculated by the three‐level model gave excellent agreement with the observed values determined by the dc induced second harmonic generation technique, for 4‐aminostilbene, p‐nitroaniline, and 2‐methyl‐4‐nitroaniline.
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42.65.Ky Frequency conversion; harmonic generation, including higher-order harmonic generation
78.20.-e Optical properties of bulk materials and thin films
42.25.Ja Polarization
77.22.Gm Dielectric loss and relaxation

Model of a nonlinear directional coupler in gallium arsenide

Wayne M. Gibbons and Dror Sarid

Appl. Phys. Lett. 51, 403 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.98403 (3 pages) | Cited 5 times

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We have calculated the response of a nonlinear directional coupler fabricated in an AlGaAs/GaAs structure using a realistic model for the optical nonlinearities. The model takes into account carrier‐density‐dependent index of refraction and absorption, and lateral carrier diffusion in each of the two coupled channel waveguides. Our results differ considerably from those obtained using a Kerr model for the optical nonlinearities.
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42.79.Gn Optical waveguides and couplers
78.20.Ci Optical constants (including refractive index, complex dielectric constant, absorption, reflection and transmission coefficients, emissivity)
42.65.-k Nonlinear optics

Detection of individual 0.4–28 μm wavelength photons via impurity‐impact ionization in a solid‐state photomultiplier

M. D. Petroff, M. G. Stapelbroek, and W. A. Kleinhans

Appl. Phys. Lett. 51, 406 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.98404 (3 pages) | Cited 56 times

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A solid‐state device capable of continuous detection of individual photons in the wavelength range from 0.4 to 28 μm is described. Operated with a dc applied bias, its response to the absorption of incident photons consists of submicrosecond rise time pulses with amplitudes well above the electronic readout noise level. A counting quantum efficiency of over 30% has been demonstrated at a wavelength of 20 μm, and over 50% was observed in the visible‐light region. Optimum photon‐counting performance occurs for temperatures between 6 and 10 K and for count rates less than 1010 counts/s per cm2 of detector area. The operating principle of the device is outlined and its performance characteristics as a photon detector are presented.
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85.30.Mn Junction breakdown and tunneling devices (including resonance tunneling devices)
73.40.Kp III-V semiconductor-to-semiconductor contacts, p-n junctions, and heterojunctions
68.35.Fx Diffusion; interface formation
71.23.An Theories and models; localized states

Electric field distribution in the cathode sheath of an electron beam glow discharge

S. A. Lee, L.‐U. A. Andersen, J. J. Rocca, M. Marconi, and N. D. Reesor

Appl. Phys. Lett. 51, 409 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.98405 (3 pages) | Cited 10 times

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We have measured the electric field distribution in the cathode sheath of an electron beam He glow discharge. Laser saturation spectroscopy was used to determine the quadratic Stark shift produced by the electric field. The experimental results are in good agreement with the calculations of a collisional model of the cathode sheath.
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52.80.Hc Glow; corona
41.75.Fr Electron and positron beams
52.40.Hf Plasma-material interactions; boundary layer effects

Equilibrium temperature and related defects in intrinsic glow discharge amorphous silicon

T. J. McMahon and R. Tsu

Appl. Phys. Lett. 51, 412 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.98406 (3 pages) | Cited 57 times

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We find the equilibrium temperature for intrinsic glow discharge amorphous silicon to be 195–200 °C. Defects left behind after fast cooling result in a temperature‐dependent dc photoconductivity which shows small differences in the tail state recombination kinetics when compared to defects left behind in the same number after light soaking. Finally anneal kinetics of fast cool defects follow neither singly activated, mono‐, nor bimolecular kinetics with a temperature dependence indicating activation energies from 1.0 to 1.4 eV. Unlike the distribution of defects left behind in similar number as a result of light soaking at room temperature, the distribution of defects resulting from fast cooling from higher temperature is shifted to higher energies and requires much longer anneal times.
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61.72.Bb Theories and models of crystal defects
72.20.Jv Charge carriers: generation, recombination, lifetime, and trapping
72.40.+w Photoconduction and photovoltaic effects
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology

Temporary laser damage threshold enhancement by laser conditioning of antireflection‐coated glass

M. E. Frink, J. W. Arenberg, D. W. Mordaunt, S. C. Seitel, M. T. Babb, and E. A. Teppo

Appl. Phys. Lett. 51, 415 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.98407 (3 pages) | Cited 12 times

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Laser irradiation at fluences below the damage threshold level of antireflection‐coated BK7 (grade A borosilicate crown glass) samples temporarily increases the measured laser‐induced damage threshold by about 40%. Because the surface damage threshold is sensitive to the irradiation history, it is necessary to control the test procedure to ensure reproducible and accurate measurements. Preliminary results indicate that adsorption of water is a principal factor involved in the deactivation of the conditioning enhanced laser damage thresholds.
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61.80.Ba Ultraviolet, visible, and infrared radiation effects (including laser radiation)
42.79.Wc Optical coatings
81.05.Kf Glasses (including metallic glasses)
81.65.-b Surface treatments
68.03.Fg Evaporation and condensation of liquids
68.43.Mn Adsorption kinetics

Deconvolution of the infrared absorption peak of the vibrational stretching mode of silicon dioxide: Evidence for structural order?

Ian W. Boyd

Appl. Phys. Lett. 51, 418 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.98408 (3 pages) | Cited 36 times

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It is found that the characteristic infrared spectra of thermally grown silicon dioxide in the 1075 cm−1 region for films in the thickness range 28–450 Å mathematically deconvolute consistently into two distinctly separate Gaussian profiles. The derived peaks are found around 1050 cm−1 with a full width at half‐maximum transmission value (FWHM) of 65 cm−1, and near 1085 cm−1 with a FWHM of 35 cm−1. The relative band areas of these two features are consistently found to be approximately 0.76 and 0.24, respectively. These observations could be supportive of at least two structural models of amorphous silicon dioxide disclaiming the generally accepted continuous random network arrangement.
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68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
63.50.-x Vibrational states in disordered systems
78.30.Hv Other nonmetallic inorganics
78.66.Fd III-V semiconductors
78.66.Hf II-VI semiconductors

Degradation of micron‐sized CrSi2 lines on polycrystalline silicon

J. R. Phillips, L. R. Zheng, and J. W. Mayer

Appl. Phys. Lett. 51, 421 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.98409 (3 pages) | Cited 3 times

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The thermal stability of CrSi2 fine lines on undoped chemical vapor deposited polycrystalline silicon was investigated. Heat treatments were in vacuum at temperatures between 500 and 950 °C. Hillock growth resulting from dissolution of silicon and subsequent regrowth in the silicide resulted in degradation at temperatures as low as 650 °C. We found that the degradation occurs preferentially at line edges. It is suggested that the edge preference is due to silicide deformation that is required at recrystallization sites.
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68.60.Dv Thermal stability; thermal effects
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
68.35.B- Structure of clean surfaces (and surface reconstruction)
81.40.Gh Other heat and thermomechanical treatments

Void formation in thin Al films

E. G. Colgan, C.‐Y. Li, and J. W. Mayer

Appl. Phys. Lett. 51, 424 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.98410 (3 pages) | Cited 9 times

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Al films deposited on Pt layers developed voids after annealing between 200 and 300 °C. Void formation in the Al was also observed when the Pt layer was deposited above the Al film. The amount of Al surrounding the voids increased as the voids grew. The void growth seems to saturate when all the Pt is consumed to form Pt2Al3, and the rate of void growth decreases as the thickness of the initial Al film increases. We believe the controlling mechanism is diffusion along the Al/Pt interface made possible by compound formation there.
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68.55.Ln Defects and impurities: doping, implantation, distribution, concentration, etc.
68.35.Fx Diffusion; interface formation
81.15.-z Methods of deposition of films and coatings; film growth and epitaxy
82.65.+r Surface and interface chemistry; heterogeneous catalysis at surfaces

New probe of thin‐film microstructure

Victor Mizrahi, F. Suits, J. E. Sipe, U. J. Gibson, and G. I. Stegeman

Appl. Phys. Lett. 51, 427 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.98411 (3 pages) | Cited 6 times

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We demonstrate that second harmonic generation is a sensitive probe of thin‐film deposition conditions.
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68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
81.15.-z Methods of deposition of films and coatings; film growth and epitaxy
42.65.Ky Frequency conversion; harmonic generation, including higher-order harmonic generation
78.66.-w Optical properties of specific thin films

Nonlinear excitonic optical absorption in GaSb

A. M. Fox, A. C. Maciel, J. F. Ryan, and T. Kerr

Appl. Phys. Lett. 51, 430 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.98412 (3 pages) | Cited 3 times

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We have measured the saturation of optical absorption in GaSb at wavelengths close to the band gap, and have determined the nonlinear absorption (α2) and refraction (n2) coefficients. At liquid‐helium temperature a sharp free‐exciton absorption line is observed which saturates with increasing incident laser intensity; we obtain values ‖α2‖=70 cm W−1 and ‖n2‖≊0.2 cm2 kW−1. At room temperature we do not observe a well‐defined exciton; saturation of the residual interband absorption occurs at much higher intensity, and it is found to be obscured by strong thermal effects.
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78.30.-j Infrared and Raman spectra
78.40.Fy Semiconductors
71.35.-y Excitons and related phenomena
42.65.Es Stimulated Brillouin and Rayleigh scattering
78.20.Ci Optical constants (including refractive index, complex dielectric constant, absorption, reflection and transmission coefficients, emissivity)

Electron trap center generation due to hole trapping in SiO2 under Fowler–Nordheim tunneling stress

Hidetsugu Uchida and Tsuneo Ajioka

Appl. Phys. Lett. 51, 433 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.98413 (3 pages) | Cited 23 times

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The relation between generation of neutral electron trap centers and hole trapping in thermally grown SiO2 under Fowler–Nordheim tunneling stress has been investigated. The experimental results show that the density of neutral electron trap centers is proportional to the density of trapped holes under Fowler–Nordheim tunneling stress with various electric fields and the total number of electrons injected into the oxide. The generation mechanism is explained by a model based on strained bonds.
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73.50.Gr Charge carriers: generation, recombination, lifetime, trapping, mean free paths
73.40.Qv Metal-insulator-semiconductor structures (including semiconductor-to-insulator)
73.40.Gk Tunneling

Acoustoelectric effects in superlattices using a separate‐medium structure

M. Tabib‐Azar and P. Das

Appl. Phys. Lett. 51, 436 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.98414 (3 pages) | Cited 11 times

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The interaction of the surface acoustic wave (SAW) with the GaAs/AlAs superlattice is investigated using a separate‐medium convolver structure. The magnitude and polarity of the acoustoelectric voltages exhibit strong temperature and SAW frequency dependences, a phenomenon that is not observed in homogeneous semiconductors. Possible SAW‐superlattice interaction models that tentatively explain the observed data are discussed.
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72.50.+b Acoustoelectric effects
43.35.Pt Surface waves in solids and liquids
43.35.Ns Acoustical properties of thin films
43.35.-c Ultrasonics, quantum acoustics, and physical effects of sound
73.50.Rb Acoustoelectric and magnetoacoustic effects
77.65.Dq Acoustoelectric effects and surface acoustic waves (SAW) in piezoelectrics

Nearly ideal electronic properties of sulfide coated GaAs surfaces

E. Yablonovitch, C. J. Sandroff, R. Bhat, and T. Gmitter

Appl. Phys. Lett. 51, 439 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.98415 (3 pages) | Cited 183 times

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We have discovered that a class of inorganic sulfides [Li2S, (NH4)2S, Na2S⋅9H2O, etc.] imparts excellent electronic properties to GaAs surfaces. The surface recombination velocity at the interface between Na2S⋅9H2O and GaAs begins to approach that of the nearly ideal AlGaAs/GaAs interface. We propose the formation of a robust covalently bonded sulfide layer to explain the favorable electronic quality of such interfaces.
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73.40.Mr Semiconductor-electrolyte contacts
73.21.-b Electron states and collective excitations in multilayers, quantum wells, mesoscopic, and nanoscale systems
73.25.+i Surface conductivity and carrier phenomena

Temperature dependence of the current‐voltage characteristics of metal‐semiconductor field‐effect transistors in n‐type β‐SiC grown via chemical vapor deposition

H. S. Kong, J. W. Palmour, J. T. Glass, and R. F. Davis

Appl. Phys. Lett. 51, 442 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.98416 (3 pages) | Cited 21 times

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Metal‐semiconductor field‐effect transistors (MESFET’s) have been fabricated in an unintentionally doped, n‐type β‐SiC thin film grown by chemical vapor deposition (CVD). This n‐type layer was deposited on a monocrystalline p‐type β‐SiC (100) CVD layer previously grown on a p‐type Si (100) substrate. The buried p layer allowed the devices to be fabricated several microns away from the SiC/Si interface region which contained numerous defects formed as a result of the poor lattice match and different coefficients of thermal expansion between SiC and Si. Thermally evaporated Au was utilized for the gate contact. Sputtered TaSi2 was employed for the source and drain contacts. The gate lengths and channel depths of these MESFET’s were 3.5 and 0.60 μm, respectively. Saturation of the drain currents was achieved at room temperature. Furthermore, the current‐voltage characteristics, measured from 298 to 623 K for the first time, indicated that these MESFET’s performed reasonably well throughout this temperature range. The maximum transconductance obtained was 1.6 mS/mm; the value of this parameter decreased with temperature.
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85.30.Tv Field effect devices
73.40.Ns Metal-nonmetal contacts
81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)
73.61.Ng Insulators

Thermally stimulated resonant current in AlGaAs/GaAs triple barrier diodes

T. Nakagawa, T. Fujita, Y. Matsumoto, T. Kojima, and K. Ohta

Appl. Phys. Lett. 51, 445 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.98417 (3 pages) | Cited 4 times

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Thermally stimulated resonant current peaks are observed in Al0.4Ga0.6As/GaAs triple barrier diodes. These current peaks are interpreted as resonant tunnelings from the first excited electron subband in the first well to the first excited subband and to the second excited subband in the second well. The activation energies for these resonance peaks are measured. The results imply that in the substrate‐side well there is a large amount of excess electrons to compensate the positive charge of silicon atoms segregated into the structure during the growth.
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85.30.Mn Junction breakdown and tunneling devices (including resonance tunneling devices)
73.40.Kp III-V semiconductor-to-semiconductor contacts, p-n junctions, and heterojunctions
68.35.Fx Diffusion; interface formation
71.23.An Theories and models; localized states

Quantum transport calculation of the small‐signal response of a resonant tunneling diode

William R. Frensley

Appl. Phys. Lett. 51, 448 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.98418 (3 pages) | Cited 40 times

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The linear and lowest order nonlinear response of a quantum well resonant tunneling diode is evaluated using quantum transport theory. The calculations show that the negative conductance persists up to about 5 THz, although parasitic circuit elements will limit the maximum oscillation frequency to a much lower value. The nonlinear response (rectification) remains significant to frequencies near 10 THz and shows a resonant peak near 4 THz. These calculations support the interpretation of the experimental data of T. C. L. G. Sollner, W. D. Goodhue, P. E. Tannenwald, C. D. Parker, and D. D. Peck [Appl. Phys. Lett. 43, 588 (1983)] that rectification at 2.5 THz was observed in their devices.
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85.30.Mn Junction breakdown and tunneling devices (including resonance tunneling devices)
85.30.De Semiconductor-device characterization, design, and modeling
73.40.Lq Other semiconductor-to-semiconductor contacts, p-n junctions, and heterojunctions
73.40.Gk Tunneling

Hydrogen neutralization of chalcogen double donors in silicon

G. Pensl, G. Roos, C. Holm, E. Sirtl, and N. M. Johnson

Appl. Phys. Lett. 51, 451 (1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.98419 (3 pages) | Cited 22 times

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Hydrogen neutralization of chalcogen (S, Se, and Te) double‐donor centers in single‐crystal silicon is demonstrated with deep level transient spectroscopy. The deep‐donor chalcogen concentration can be reduced by greater than a factor of 100, while in the same samples the phosphorus shallow‐donor concentration decreases by only a small percentage. Both electronic levels of the double donors were fully removed by hydrogenation and recovered with an anneal at 500 °C.
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78.30.Er Solid metals and alloys
78.40.Kc Metals, semimetals, and alloys
72.20.Jv Charge carriers: generation, recombination, lifetime, and trapping
81.40.Rs Electrical and magnetic properties related to treatment conditions
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