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6 Mar 1989

Volume 54, Issue 10, pp. 869-968

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Threefold upconversion laser at 0.85, 1.23, and 1.73 μm in Er:YLF pumped with a 1.53 μm Er glass laser

S. A. Pollack, D. B. Chang, and M. Birnbaum

Appl. Phys. Lett. 54, 869 (1989); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.100842 (3 pages) | Cited 31 times

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Lasing action at 1.73, 1.23, and 0.85 μm was obtained by a threefold upconversion process in Er:YLF at 110 K using a 1.53 μm Er:glass pump laser. The 1.73 μm transition had the lowest threshold and highest pump conversion efficiency.
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42.55.Rz Doped-insulator lasers and other solid state lasers
78.45.+h Stimulated emission
42.60.Da Resonators, cavities, amplifiers, arrays, and rings
42.55.-f Lasers

Photocarrier generation and injection at the interface in double‐layered organic photoconductors

Yoshihiko Kanemitsu and Shunji Imamura

Appl. Phys. Lett. 54, 872 (1989); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.100794 (3 pages) | Cited 5 times

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Photocarrier generation and injection processes in double‐layered organic photoconductors consisting of carrier generation layer (CGL) and carrier transport layer (CTL) were studied by means of photoacoustic and xerographic time‐of‐flight methods. In the photoacoustic method, the photocarrier generation efficiency in the CGL was derived by measuring the decrease in photoacoustic signal due to carrier recombination in the CGL. On the other hand, in the xerographic method, the ratio of the number of holes emitted into the CTL to that of absorbed photons in the CGL was obtained from the temporal change in surface voltage under light pulse irradiation. From comparing two experimental results, we evaluated the injection efficiency of holes at the CGL/CTL interface. The injection efficiency is determined by the trapping of holes at the CGL/CTL interface.
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73.40.-c Electronic transport in interface structures
72.40.+w Photoconduction and photovoltaic effects
73.50.Pz Photoconduction and photovoltaic effects
85.60.Gz Photodetectors (including infrared and CCD detectors)

Visible‐wavelength amplified spontaneous emission in a neodymium‐doped optical fiber pumped at 1064 nm

T. F. Carruthers, I. N. Duling, C. M. Shaw, and E. J. Friebele

Appl. Phys. Lett. 54, 875 (1989); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.100795 (3 pages) | Cited 8 times

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A neodymium‐doped single‐mode fiber emits light at 496 and 633 nm, as well as at several near‐infrared wavelengths, when pumped by a mode‐locked, Q‐switched Nd:YAG laser operating at 1064 nm. A threshold peak pumping power of approximately 50 kW is required for the process; peak emitted powers of several watts were observed. The blue line is more than 15 nm wide at high pumping levels and possesses large temporal pulse dispersion across its spectrum. Amplified spontaneous emission via a three‐photon pumping process is proposed to account for the phenomenon.
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42.55.Rz Doped-insulator lasers and other solid state lasers
42.81.Gs Birefringence, polarization
42.60.Da Resonators, cavities, amplifiers, arrays, and rings
42.55.-f Lasers

Coherence saturation for beams of energetic photons

Paul L. Csonka

Appl. Phys. Lett. 54, 878 (1989); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.100796 (3 pages)

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A new method is proposed to generate transversely coherent energetic photon beams. It does not rely on stimulated photon emission, therefore, is not subject to the same technological and cost limitations which affect bound‐state x‐ray lasers and free‐electron x‐ray lasers. The method leaves unchanged the photon source; it increases transverse coherence by dynamical optical means, i.e., using nonstationary optical elements. It is well suited to first‐order interference experiments (e.g., x‐ray holography) particularly with synchrotron radiation sources.
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07.85.-m X- and γ-ray instruments
41.60.-m Radiation by moving charges

In situ laser patterned desorption of GaAs quantum wells for monolithic multiple wavelength diode lasers

J. E. Epler, D. W. Treat, H. F. Chung, T. Tjoe, and T. L. Paoli

Appl. Phys. Lett. 54, 881 (1989); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.100797 (3 pages) | Cited 3 times

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A new laser‐assisted crystal growth technique that enables three‐dimensional patterning of the GaAs quantum well (QW) active layer within a laser diode structure is demonstrated. In this technique, the GaAs QW is locally heated with superimposed Ar+ and Nd:YAG laser beams during a pause in the metalorganic chemical vapor deposition growth. The evaporation rate of the GaAs is greatly increased by the laser heating, locally thinning the QW. After exposure, the crystal growth is resumed, burying the patterned QW within the crystal. Transmission electron microscopy is used to quantify the lateral profile of the QW thickness while photoluminescence is used to demonstrate the spatial variation of the energy band gap. Finally, multiple wavelength operation of broad‐area diode lasers is observed, consistent with the spatial variation in the energy band gap.
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81.15.Kk Vapor phase epitaxy; growth from vapor phase
81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)
42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.60.Da Resonators, cavities, amplifiers, arrays, and rings

Modulation bandwidth of GaAs/AlGaAs single quantum well lasers operating at the second quantized state

Anders Larsson and Carsten Lindström

Appl. Phys. Lett. 54, 884 (1989); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.100798 (3 pages) | Cited 8 times

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The dynamic properties of GaAs/AlGaAs graded index separate confinement heterostructure single quantum well lasers have been investigated. The sublinear gain‐carrier density relation imposes bandwidth limitations on these lasers. However, a considerable increase in the resonance frequency (∼55% for a quantum well width of 140 Å) was observed for lasers with cavities shorter than a certain cavity length. This discontinuous increase in bandwidth with decreasing cavity length coincides with the transition from first to second quantized state lasing and the associated recovery of the differential gain.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.60.Fc Modulation, tuning, and mode locking
42.79.Sz Optical communication systems, multiplexers, and demultiplexers

Resonant cavity for the stimulated emission of x rays

Ariel Caticha, Nestor Caticha, and S. Caticha‐Ellis

Appl. Phys. Lett. 54, 887 (1989); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.100799 (3 pages) | Cited 6 times

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Rate equations are proposed which describe the operation of a crystal as a resonant cavity for x rays. The formalism, which applies equally well to two‐beam or multibeam diffraction cases, is not restricted to any particular mechanism of x‐ray emission. It automatically takes into account dynamical diffraction effects on energy flow (group velocity) and absorption (the Borrmann effect) which are shown to be instrumental in increasing gain and lowering the lasing threshold. The resonant x‐ray modes are those for which the group velocity vanishes (the resonant diffraction condition).
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42.60.Da Resonators, cavities, amplifiers, arrays, and rings
42.55.Ah General laser theory
41.60.Cr Free-electron lasers

Picosecond GaAs‐based photoconductive optoelectronic detectors

F. W. Smith, H. Q. Le, V. Diadiuk, M. A. Hollis, A. R. Calawa, S. Gupta, M. Frankel, D. R. Dykaar, G. A. Mourou, and T. Y. Hsiang

Appl. Phys. Lett. 54, 890 (1989); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.100800 (3 pages) | Cited 180 times

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A novel material deposited by molecular beam epitaxy at low substrate temperatures using Ga and As4 beam fluxes has been used as the active layer for a high‐speed photoconductive optoelectronic switch. The high‐speed photoconductive performance of the material was assessed by fabricating two devices: an Auston switch and a photoconductive‐gap switch with a coplanar transmission line. In a coplanar transmission line configuration, the speed of response is 1.6 ps (full width at half maximum) and the response is 10 to 100 times greater than that of conventional photoconductive switches. Since the material is compatible with GaAs discrete device and integrated circuit technologies, this photoconductive switch may find extensive applications for high‐speed device and circuit testing.
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85.60.Gz Photodetectors (including infrared and CCD detectors)
72.40.+w Photoconduction and photovoltaic effects

Single‐beam overwriting with melt‐erasing process in an InSbTe phase‐change optical disk

Yoshihito Maeda, Hisashi Andoh, Iaso Ikuta, Masaichi Nagai, Yoshimi Katoh, Hiroyuki Minemura, Nobuyoshi Tsuboi, Yoshio Satoh, Norio Gotoh, and Masaji Ishigaki

Appl. Phys. Lett. 54, 893 (1989); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.101417 (3 pages) | Cited 19 times

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Single‐beam overwriting with melt‐erasing process was made in a 5.25‐in.‐diam phase‐change optical disk using an In22Sb37Te41 recording film. In the overwriting between 2 and 3 MHz signals at the linear velocity of 3–11 m/s, a carrier to noise ratio (C/N) more than 46 dB and an erasability less than −35 dB could be obtained. This high erasability was found to be due to the melt‐erasing process. This disk presents highly erasable overwriting and long data retention time supported by an activation energy of 2.3 eV and a temperature of 230 °C for crystallization of the amorphized part.
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42.79.Vb Optical storage systems, optical disks
78.20.N- Thermo-optic effects
78.20.nb Photothermal effects
64.70.K- Solid-solid transitions

Optical nonlinearities induced by thermal effects in polymer dispersed liquid crystals

F. Simoni, G. Cipparrone, C. Umeton, G. Arabia, and G. Chidichimo

Appl. Phys. Lett. 54, 896 (1989); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.100801 (2 pages) | Cited 20 times

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The first experimental observation of strong optical nonlinearities induced by a laser field in polymer dispersed liquid crystals is reported. The measured rise time of the effect agrees with the interpretation of a thermal origin of the phenomenon.
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78.20.N- Thermo-optic effects
78.20.nb Photothermal effects
61.30.Gd Orientational order of liquid crystals; electric and magnetic field effects on order
42.65.Jx Beam trapping, self-focusing and defocusing; self-phase modulation

Measurements of fractal dimension for Co‐Si interfacial layers

N. I. Cho and R. W. Bené

Appl. Phys. Lett. 54, 898 (1989); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.100802 (3 pages) | Cited 1 time

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We report on measurements of fractal dimension for ultrathin cobalt films deposited onto silicon substrates. A new method has been used for the fractal dimension measurements, which involves an image processing of transmission electron microscopy (TEM) bright field image of the ultrathin film structure. The TEM image is digitized by 512×512 pixels with intensity levels from 0 to 255, and topographic contour lines which connect the same intensity levels are obtained from the digitized image. The fractal dimension (D) of the ultrathin film structure is calculated from the contour lines by using a relation (L=AD/2) between the areas (A) and perimeters (L) for each of the closed lines as suggested by Mandelbrot [Fractal Geometry of Nature (Freeman, New York, 1982), Chap. 12]. Results of the measurements indicate that the Co‐Si interfacial dimension is increased from 2.0 to near 2.5 as the reaction is progressed. The results are compared with the fluctuating fractal dimension calculated from the noise exponent data.
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68.35.B- Structure of clean surfaces (and surface reconstruction)
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology

Formation of an interfacial AlN layer in an Al/Si3N4 thin‐film system

R. Brener, F. Edelman, and E. Y. Gutmanas

Appl. Phys. Lett. 54, 901 (1989); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.101418 (3 pages) | Cited 9 times

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The formation of an interfacial AlN layer was observed in an Al/Si3 N4 thin‐film system immediately after electron beam deposition of Al, employing Auger electron spectroscopy, x‐ray diffraction, and transmission electron microscopy. Heat treatments up to 600 °C resulted in growth of this layer. The Si liberated by the direct reaction between Al and Si3 N4 was found to crystallize into small islands of peculiar fractal‐like shape. The AlN layer acted as a diffusion barrier for diffusion of Al into Si3 N4 .
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68.35.Fx Diffusion; interface formation
81.15.-z Methods of deposition of films and coatings; film growth and epitaxy
77.55.-g Dielectric thin films
66.30.J- Diffusion of impurities

Improvement in the boron doping efficiency of hydrogenated amorphous silicon carbide films using BF3

A. Asano and H. Sakai

Appl. Phys. Lett. 54, 904 (1989); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.100803 (3 pages) | Cited 9 times

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Wide optical gap (2.0 eV) boron‐doped hydrogenated amorphous silicon carbide films were prepared by the plasma‐assisted chemical vapor deposition technique from a SiH4+CH4+BF3+H2 gas mixture for the first time. The film showed a photoconductivity of 1×10−5 S/cm under 1 sun illumination, which was higher by a factor of 5 than the films doped with B2H6.
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73.50.Pz Photoconduction and photovoltaic effects
81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)
73.61.Cw Elemental semiconductors
73.61.Jc Amorphous semiconductors; glasses
73.61.Le Other inorganic semiconductors
68.55.Ln Defects and impurities: doping, implantation, distribution, concentration, etc.

Persistent photoquenching and anion antisite defects in neutron‐irradiated GaAs

A. Goltzene, B. Meyer, and C. Schwab

Appl. Phys. Lett. 54, 907 (1989); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.100804 (3 pages) | Cited 13 times

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A potential origin for the reported discrepancies on the low‐temperature photosensitivity of particle‐induced anion antisites in GaAs is revealed by a systematic study of the relative fraction of photoquenchable paramagnetic As4+Ga centers as a function of neutron fluence and annealing temperature. The electron paramagnetic resonance data show that the As4+Ga centers can be split into two subsets.
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61.80.Hg Neutron radiation effects
76.30.Mi Color centers and other defects
61.72.Bb Theories and models of crystal defects

Selective epitaxy in the conventional metalorganic vapor phase epitaxy of GaAs

T. F. Kuech, M. A. Tischler, and R. Potemski

Appl. Phys. Lett. 54, 910 (1989); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.100805 (3 pages) | Cited 26 times

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The selective epitaxy of GaAs was demonstrated in the metalorganic vapor phase epitaxy of GaAs utilizing diethylgallium chloride [Ga(C2H5)2Cl] and AsH3. No GaAs will deposit on SiO2, Si3N4, or SiONx under normal growth conditions, i.e., 600–800 °C at 0.1 atm reactor pressure. Unlike other forms of selective epitaxy, there is no enhanced growth rate at the edge of the selectively grown regions. The selectivity is a result of the reduced adsorption of the growth precursor, probably GaCl, on the masking material relative to the exposed GaAs areas. Similar selectivity should be possible for Al and In containing semiconductors using an analogous growth chemistry.
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81.15.Kk Vapor phase epitaxy; growth from vapor phase
81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)

Low‐threshold disorder‐defined buried heterostructure strained‐layer AlyGa1−yAs‐GaAs‐InxGa1−xAs quantum well lasers (λ∼910 nm)

J. S. Major, L. J. Guido, K. C. Hsieh, N. Holonyak, W. Stutius, P. Gavrilovic, and J. E. Williams

Appl. Phys. Lett. 54, 913 (1989); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.100806 (3 pages) | Cited 26 times

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The stability of strained‐layer Aly Ga1−yAs‐GaAs‐InxGa1−x As single quantum well heterostructures against thermal processing is examined using transmission and scanning electron microscopy. A self‐aligned impurity‐induced layer disordering process employing Si‐O diffusion is used to produce buried heterostructure stripe geometry lasers with a pseudomorphic InxGa1−x As quantum well active region. The 2‐μm‐wide stripe laser diodes exhibit high efficiency (η∼41%/facet), low threshold (Ith =7 mA), and high output power (Pout >20 mW/facet).
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68.65.-k Low-dimensional, mesoscopic, nanoscale and other related systems: structure and nonelectronic properties
42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
68.60.Dv Thermal stability; thermal effects
42.60.Da Resonators, cavities, amplifiers, arrays, and rings

Ion beam enhanced diffusion of B during Si molecular beam epitaxy

P. R. Pukite, S. S. Iyer, and G. J. Scilla

Appl. Phys. Lett. 54, 916 (1989); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.100807 (3 pages) | Cited 4 times

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Enhanced diffusion of B is observed during the growth of ion bombarded epitaxial layers by Si molecular beam epitaxy. Ion‐assisted methods are generally required for high levels of n‐type doping, and we find that the damage caused by the low‐level ion bombardment is responsible for the enhanced diffusion of B. Furthermore, the concentration profiles of as‐grown and post‐growth annealed samples show that the diffusion is a transient effect that occurs at the growth temperature of 600–700 °C. Simulation of the diffusion process demonstrates that nearly all of the B is participating in the diffusion and that the built‐in electric field at the p‐n junction leads to a further smearing of the B profile.
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66.30.J- Diffusion of impurities
81.15.Hi Molecular, atomic, ion, and chemical beam epitaxy
68.55.Ln Defects and impurities: doping, implantation, distribution, concentration, etc.
81.15.Jj Ion and electron beam-assisted deposition; ion plating

Quantum calculations of ballistic transport

J. Lin and L. C. Chiu

Appl. Phys. Lett. 54, 919 (1989); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.100808 (3 pages) | Cited 2 times

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Recent experimental studies of ballistic electron transport have pushed the transit time well into the subpicosecond dynamical regime. By applying the quantum dynamical theory to study ultrafast transient transport, we report results that are dramatically different from those predicted by the classical Boltzmann theory.
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72.10.Bg General formulation of transport theory

GaSb/GaInSb quantum wells grown by metalorganic vapor phase epitaxy

S. K. Haywood, E. T. R. Chidley, R. E. Mallard, N. J. Mason, R. J. Nicholas, P. J. Walker, and R. J. Warburton

Appl. Phys. Lett. 54, 922 (1989); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.100809 (3 pages) | Cited 21 times

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Single and multiple quantum wells of GaSb/GaInSb were grown by metalorganic vapor phase epitaxy. X‐ray diffraction on an 80 Å single well confirmed the Ga1−xInxSb composition to be x=0.15, for which the lattice mismatch is ≊1.0%. Photoluminescence and photoconductivity from this sample both showed a signal due to carriers in the well, the position of which was in good agreement with the calculated band diagram. Shubnikov–de Haas oscillations in the transverse magnetoresistance (ρxx) of a four‐period multiquantum well, and the associated quantum Hall effect, indicated that a two‐dimensional hole gas was present in one of the wells. Unusually, the strongest oscillations were seen for occupancy of an odd number of (spin split) Landau levels (ν=1,3,5,...,etc.) This sample also showed luminescence peaks at 738 and 755 meV which were attributed to recombination in the wells.
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78.66.Fd III-V semiconductors
78.66.Hf II-VI semiconductors
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
68.65.-k Low-dimensional, mesoscopic, nanoscale and other related systems: structure and nonelectronic properties
73.50.-h Electronic transport phenomena in thin films

Variation in misfit dislocation behavior as a function of strain in the GeSi/Si system

R. Hull and J. C. Bean

Appl. Phys. Lett. 54, 925 (1989); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.100810 (3 pages) | Cited 57 times

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We show how strained‐layer relaxation via misfit dislocation introduction varies significantly in GexSi1−x/Si (100) epitaxy as a function of the strain in this system. It is found that for samples grown by molecular beam epitaxy at a substrate temperature of 550 °C, structures with lower strain (x=0.15) are highly metastable, relaxing most of their excess stress on annealing to temperatures ∼650–750 °C. Structures with higher strain (x=0.25) are observed to relax far more gradually over the temperature range 550–900 °C. In situ electron microscope observations explain this behavior in terms of misfit dislocation interactions in the relaxing material.
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68.35.Dv Composition, segregation; defects and impurities
61.72.Ff Direct observation of dislocations and other defects (etch pits, decoration, electron microscopy, x-ray topography, etc.)
61.72.Bb Theories and models of crystal defects
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology

Space‐charge‐limited current analysis of the leakage current and interface states of GaAs p/n diode solar cells

L. D. Partain and D. D. Liu

Appl. Phys. Lett. 54, 928 (1989); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.100811 (3 pages) | Cited 2 times

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GaAs p/n junction solar cells, grown by vapor transport, frequently show a change in efficiency with light concentration that exceeds the predictions of the standard model based on diffusion limited and generation/recombination current‐voltage mechanisms. A cell was selected where the efficiency changed from 12 to 22% between 1 and 600 suns concentration or about four times that predicted by the standard model. The dark and light, current‐voltage characteristics of this cell were modeled with a trap controlled, space‐charge‐limited current diode model for the device leakage current. A good fit to the experimental data required a distribution density of electron traps, in the high‐resistance p/n junction interface region, on the order of 1018 cm−3  eV−1 with a minimum at 0.4 eV below the conduction‐band edge. Since the measured thickness of the high resistance region is 0.1 μm, the equivalent interface state density is on the order of 1013 cm−2  eV−1 .
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84.60.Jt Photoelectric conversion
72.40.+w Photoconduction and photovoltaic effects
73.40.Kp III-V semiconductor-to-semiconductor contacts, p-n junctions, and heterojunctions
73.20.At Surface states, band structure, electron density of states

General interfacial layer expression for the equilibrium Schottky barrier height and its application to annealed Au‐GaAs contacts

Zs. J. Horváth

Appl. Phys. Lett. 54, 931 (1989); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.101351 (3 pages) | Cited 11 times

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A general expression based on the interfacial layer model is derived for the equilibrium Schottky barrer height, and it is applied to annealed Au‐GaAs contacts. Relations between the experimental barrier height, relative interfacial layer thickness and interface charge values, and the interface state energy distribution spectra are presented. The validity of the interfacial layer model is demonstrated. The obtained barrier height values and the near‐ohmic behavior after high‐temperature annealing are probably due to ionized donor type interface states in the upper half of the forbidden gap.
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73.30.+y Surface double layers, Schottky barriers, and work functions
73.40.Ns Metal-nonmetal contacts
73.20.At Surface states, band structure, electron density of states

Effect of quasibound‐state lifetime on the oscillation power of resonant tunneling diodes

E. R. Brown, C. D. Parker, and T. C. L. G. Sollner

Appl. Phys. Lett. 54, 934 (1989); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.100812 (3 pages) | Cited 52 times

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A new equivalent circuit is derived for the double‐barrier resonant tunneling diode. An essential feature of this circuit is the addition of an inductance in series with the differential conductance G of the device. The magnitude of the inductance is τN/G where τN is the lifetime of the (Nth) quasibound state through which all of the conduction current is assumed to flow. This circuit model is used to derive values of theoretical oscillator power that are in much better agreement with experimental results than theoretical predictions made without the inductance. The conclusion is drawn that the response of the double‐barrier structure to a time varying potential is consistent with the coherent picture of resonant tunneling.
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85.30.Mn Junction breakdown and tunneling devices (including resonance tunneling devices)
84.30.-r Electronic circuits
85.30.De Semiconductor-device characterization, design, and modeling

Temperature dependence of the mercury telluride‐cadmium telluride band offset

K. J. Malloy and J. A. Van Vechten

Appl. Phys. Lett. 54, 937 (1989); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.100813 (3 pages) | Cited 5 times

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After reviewing the experimental data on the valence‐band offset for HgTe‐CdTe heterojunctions, we support previous suggestions of an extreme temperature dependence for this offset with a calculation based on a bond charge model. The model predicts the T dependence of the valence‐band offset to be 77% of the difference in the band‐gap temperature dependence of the heterojunction constituents. In the HgTe‐CdTe system, the opposite signs of the band gap T variations yield an anomalously large increase in the offset of 213 meV between 0 and 300 K.
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73.40.Lq Other semiconductor-to-semiconductor contacts, p-n junctions, and heterojunctions
73.21.-b Electron states and collective excitations in multilayers, quantum wells, mesoscopic, and nanoscale systems

Nonrandom doping and elastic scattering of carriers in semiconductors

A. F. J. Levi, S. L. McCall, and P. M. Platzman

Appl. Phys. Lett. 54, 940 (1989); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.100814 (3 pages) | Cited 30 times

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High‐density delta doping of semiconductors may result in partial ordering of dopant atoms. Under suitable circumstances, periodic delta doping leads to significant suppression of elastic scattering and a consequent enhancement in charge carrier mobility.
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68.55.Ln Defects and impurities: doping, implantation, distribution, concentration, etc.
73.50.Bk General theory, scattering mechanisms
73.50.Fq High-field and nonlinear effects
85.30.Pq Bipolar transistors
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