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13 Mar 1989

Volume 54, Issue 11, pp. 975-1070

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Wavelength dependence of photorefractive effect in Ti‐indiffused LiNbO3 waveguides

T. Fujiwara, S. Sato, and H. Mori

Appl. Phys. Lett. 54, 975 (1989); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.101421 (3 pages) | Cited 14 times

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A novel method of measuring the photorefractive sensitivity of Ti‐diffused channel waveguides in lithium niobate is proposed and demonstrated. It is suited for quantifying the dependence of the photorefractive sensitivity on the irradiation beam wavelength. From measurements at various irradiation intensities and wavelengths 0.633, 0.81, and 1.06 μm, we give an estimate of the crosstalk of a directional coupler as a function of irradiation intensity and wavelength.
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78.20.Jq Electro-optical effects
42.82.-m Integrated optics
42.79.Gn Optical waveguides and couplers
42.70.Gi Light-sensitive materials

Ultrafast two‐laser pump‐probe measurement using temporally incoherent lights

Fujio Minami and Atsushi Hasegawa

Appl. Phys. Lett. 54, 978 (1989); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.100754 (3 pages) | Cited 3 times

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We propose a new type of pump‐probe method to investigate picosecond and femtosecond processes. This method utilizes the intensity correlation between two different temporally incoherent lights. It is demonstrated theoretically that the time resolution is determined by the correlation time independently of the pump and probe pulse widths. The validity of the theoretical consideration is confirmed by lifetime measurements for excited dye molecules.
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42.65.Re Ultrafast processes; optical pulse generation and pulse compression
78.47.-p Spectroscopy of solid state dynamics
42.55.Mv Dye lasers

Lasing in a ZnS0.12Se0.88/ZnSe multilayer structure with photopumping

I. Suemune, K. Yamada, H. Masato, Y. Kan, and M. Yamanishi

Appl. Phys. Lett. 54, 981 (1989); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.100755 (3 pages) | Cited 24 times

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Photopumped lasing in a ZnS0.12Se0.88/ZnSe multilayer structure up to 180 K is reported for the first time. The films were grown by metalorganic vapor phase epitaxy on (001) GaAs. The purpose of using the multilayer structure is to prevent the diffusion of the photoexcited carriers to have population inversion sufficient for lasing. The possibility of lasing at the higher temperature is briefly discussed.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
78.45.+h Stimulated emission
42.60.Da Resonators, cavities, amplifiers, arrays, and rings
78.66.Fd III-V semiconductors
78.66.Hf II-VI semiconductors

High‐speed and high‐gain optical amplifying photodetection in a semiconductor laser amplifier

Hisao Nakajima

Appl. Phys. Lett. 54, 984 (1989); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.100756 (3 pages) | Cited 2 times

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A high‐speed and high‐gain photodetection was experimentally demonstrated in a distributed feedback semiconductor laser amplifier by detecting its forward voltage changes induced by the injection of weak intensity modulated light. Physical phenomenon involved in the photodetection stems from the reduction of quasi‐Fermi level separation through the depletion of carrier density by optical amplification. A bandwidth as wide as 500 MHz was measured together with a narrowband spectral selectivity for the amplifier biased just below the lasing threshold. The responsivity and the noise equivalent power were found to be comparable with those of the conventional detection scheme using a similar optical preamplifier and a Ge avalanche photodetector.
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85.60.Gz Photodetectors (including infrared and CCD detectors)
42.79.Sz Optical communication systems, multiplexers, and demultiplexers
42.60.Da Resonators, cavities, amplifiers, arrays, and rings
42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes

Angular‐selective optical properties of Cr films made by oblique‐angle evaporation

G. Mbise, G. B. Smith, G. A. Niklasson, and C. G. Granqvist

Appl. Phys. Lett. 54, 987 (1989); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.100757 (3 pages) | Cited 38 times

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Thin Cr films were made by oblique‐angle evaporation onto glass. Electron microscopy showed an inclined columnar microstructure. Spectrophotometry yielded a strongly angular‐selective p‐polarized transmittance, consistent with recent theoretical notions, of potential interest for energy‐efficient windows.
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78.66.Bz Metals and metallic alloys
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
81.15.-z Methods of deposition of films and coatings; film growth and epitaxy

Compound cavity modes in semiconductor lasers with asymmetric optical feedback

Dong‐Sun Seo, Jong‐Dae Park, John G. McInerney, and Marek Osiński

Appl. Phys. Lett. 54, 990 (1989); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.100758 (3 pages) | Cited 5 times

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We describe a static model for determining the oscillating modes of an external cavity semiconductor laser with asymmetric feedback induced by external mirror misalignment. The most significant prediction of this model, the existence of double loss minima leading to compound cavity mode splitting, has been confirmed directly by spectral measurements. This result is important for analyzing complex dynamical phenomena in semiconductor lasers with optical feedback.
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42.60.Da Resonators, cavities, amplifiers, arrays, and rings
42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.65.Ky Frequency conversion; harmonic generation, including higher-order harmonic generation
42.60.Fc Modulation, tuning, and mode locking

Generation of 5 THz repetition optical pulses by modulation instability in optical fibers

S. Sudo, H. Itoh, K. Okamoto, and K. Kubodera

Appl. Phys. Lett. 54, 993 (1989); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.100759 (2 pages) | Cited 10 times

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5 THz repetition rate optical pulses have been achieved with modulation instability in an optical fiber. The detailed investigation on the relationship between fiber anomalous dispersion and modulation frequency enables high repetition rate optical pulses, yielding a control method of pulse repetition rate.
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42.65.Re Ultrafast processes; optical pulse generation and pulse compression
42.65.Ky Frequency conversion; harmonic generation, including higher-order harmonic generation
42.81.Gs Birefringence, polarization

Enhanced magnetically tunable attenuation and relative velocity of 0.6 GHz Rayleigh waves in nickel thin films

R. F. Wiegert and M. Levy

Appl. Phys. Lett. 54, 995 (1989); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.100760 (3 pages) | Cited 4 times

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The magnetic field (H) dependences of the ultrasonic attenuation Δα(H) and the relative velocity ΔV(H) responses of 0.6 GHz Rayleigh‐mode surface acoustic wave pulses in vacuum‐evaporated, uniaxially anisotropic nickel thin films were measured and correlated with changes in the sample’s dc magnetoresistance Δρ(H). Recent advances in film preparation techniques have resulted in low magnetic anisotropy dispersion samples with enhanced magnetoelastic responses at small H [Δα(H)≊80 dB/cm and ΔV(H)/V≊0.07% as H varies from 0 to 100 Oe].
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43.35.Ns Acoustical properties of thin films
43.35.Pt Surface waves in solids and liquids
75.30.Gw Magnetic anisotropy
68.60.Bs Mechanical and acoustical properties

GaAs growth properties on V‐grooved Si substrates

A. Hashimoto, T. Fukunaga, and N. Watanabe

Appl. Phys. Lett. 54, 998 (1989); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.100761 (3 pages) | Cited 8 times

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GaAs growth properties and first successful maskless selective growth on the etched groove Si substrates are reported. No crystal growth occurs on the {111} Si sidewalls of the V grooves, and the GaAs layers grow only on the {100} planes. The cross‐sectional shapes of the selective grown layer depend on the direction of the V grooves. The selectivity also remains even in Al0.3Ga0.7As‐grown layers. The selective growth mechanisms are discussed.
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81.15.-z Methods of deposition of films and coatings; film growth and epitaxy
81.65.-b Surface treatments
81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)

Growth of regularly coiled spring‐like fibers of Si3N4 by iron impurity‐activated chemical vapor deposition

Seiji Motojima, Shuji Ueno, Tatsuhiko Hattori, and Keisuke Goto

Appl. Phys. Lett. 54, 1001 (1989); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.101422 (3 pages) | Cited 28 times

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Very regularly coiled spring‐like fibers of Si3N4 have been obtained from a gas mixture of Si2Cl6, NH3, and H2 at 1200 °C on a graphite substrate on which an iron impurity was painted. The spring‐like fibers were amorphous Si3N4 with a circular cross section having a 0.5–1 μm thickness, 3–5 μm coil pitch, 10–15 μm coil diameter, and 50–100 μm coil length. The height of the bush of the fibers reached 1.5–2 mm after 30 min reaction time.
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68.70.+w Whiskers and dendrites (growth, structure, and nonelectronic properties)
68.35.B- Structure of clean surfaces (and surface reconstruction)
81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)
81.05.Je Ceramics and refractories (including borides, carbides, hydrides, nitrides, oxides, and silicides)

Misfit dislocations in In0.15Ga0.85As/GaAs strained‐layer superlattices

C. Herbeaux, J. Di Persio, and A. Lefebvre

Appl. Phys. Lett. 54, 1004 (1989); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.100780 (3 pages) | Cited 26 times

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The misfit dislocation structure in In0.15Ga0.85As/GaAs strained‐layer superlattices has been characterized by transmission electron microscopy. Most of the dislocations are 60° dislocations confined to the buffer/strained‐layer superlattice interface. This interface also contains sources that emit glissile dislocations into the {111} planes. These dislocations develop into the buffer layer and the substrate but hardly into the strained‐layer superlattice. The sources are connected to the interactions between misfit dislocations in the buffer/superlattice interface.
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68.65.-k Low-dimensional, mesoscopic, nanoscale and other related systems: structure and nonelectronic properties
68.35.Dv Composition, segregation; defects and impurities
61.72.Ff Direct observation of dislocations and other defects (etch pits, decoration, electron microscopy, x-ray topography, etc.)

Low‐temperature silicon selective deposition and epitaxy on silicon using the thermal decomposition of silane under ultraclean environment

Junichi Murota, Naoto Nakamura, Manabu Kato, Nobuo Mikoshiba, and Tadahiro Ohmi

Appl. Phys. Lett. 54, 1007 (1989); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.100781 (3 pages) | Cited 39 times

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An ultraclean hot‐wall low‐pressure chemical vapor deposition (CVD) system was developed and Si films were deposited on single‐crystal Si and SiO2 using ultraclean SiH4 and H2 gases in the temperature range 600–850 °C under an ultraclean environment. As a result of ultraclean processing, an incubation period of Si deposition only on SiO2 was found, and low‐temperature Si selective deposition and epitaxy on Si were achieved without addition of HCl under deposition conditions where only nonselective polycrystalline Si growth could be obtained in conventional CVD systems.
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81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)
81.15.Kk Vapor phase epitaxy; growth from vapor phase

Growth of n‐type heteroepitaxial films of gray tin on (001) CdTe by molecular beam epitaxy

Li‐Wei Tu, George K. Wong, and John B. Ketterson

Appl. Phys. Lett. 54, 1010 (1989); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.100782 (3 pages) | Cited 21 times

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We report the molecular beam epitaxy growth of α‐Sn films on argon sputter cleaned (001) CdTe substrates on which a buffer layer of CdTe has been deposited. Films thinner than 400 Å are p‐type with carrier densities as high as 2×1019 cm−3 ;thicker films are n‐type with carrier densities of (4–10)×1017 . The best film had a mobility of 1.3×104 cm2 /V s at 77 K.
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81.15.Hi Molecular, atomic, ion, and chemical beam epitaxy
73.50.Gr Charge carriers: generation, recombination, lifetime, trapping, mean free paths
73.61.At Metal and metallic alloys
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology

Temperature dependence of local vibrational mode optical absorption for carbon acceptors in GaAs

L. Sargent and J. S. Blakemore

Appl. Phys. Lett. 54, 1013 (1989); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.100783 (3 pages) | Cited 10 times

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The local vibrational mode (LVM) absorption band due to CAs in GaAs is reported for three semi‐insulating samples at room temperature and for T<77 K. Data obtained by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy at resolution values from 1.0 to 0.1 cm−1 indicate that the area of the carbon LVM band increases by ∼60% upon cooling from room temperature, a substantially larger increase than some accounts have suggested. Our recommended value for the calibration factor f in going from LVM band area to carbon concentration is fRT≂1.6fLT ≂(13±3)×1015 cm−1.
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78.30.-j Infrared and Raman spectra
78.40.Fy Semiconductors
78.30.Fs III-V and II-VI semiconductors
63.20.Pw Localized modes

Molecular beam epitaxial growth and characterization of InSb on Si

J.‐I. Chyi, D. Biswas, S. V. Iyer, N. S. Kumar, H. Morkoç, R. Bean, K. Zanio, H.‐Y. Lee, and Haydn Chen

Appl. Phys. Lett. 54, 1016 (1989); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.100784 (3 pages) | Cited 41 times

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Epitaxial layers of InSb have been grown on Si substrates by molecular beam epitaxy. Room‐temperature electron mobilities are 48 000 and 39 000 cm2/V s for 3.2 μm‐thick InSb with and without a thin GaAs buffer, respectively. The corresponding carrier concentrations are 2.2×1016 and 2.7×1016 cm−3. A sample with an InSb thickness of 8 μm exhibited room‐temperature mobilities as high as 55 000 cm2/V s with carrier concentrations of about 2.0×1016 cm−3. A sharp band‐edge transmission spectrum is observed at room temperature for the 8 μm layer.
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81.15.Hi Molecular, atomic, ion, and chemical beam epitaxy
73.50.Gr Charge carriers: generation, recombination, lifetime, trapping, mean free paths
73.50.Dn Low-field transport and mobility; piezoresistance
73.61.Ey III-V semiconductors

Hyperabrupt‐doped GaAs nonlinear transmission line for picosecond shock‐wave generation

C. J. Madden, R. A. Marsland, M. J. W. Rodwell, D. M. Bloom, and Y. C. Pao

Appl. Phys. Lett. 54, 1019 (1989); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.100785 (3 pages) | Cited 18 times

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Voltage waveforms with 6 V amplitude and 1.6 ps fall time were generated by voltage shock‐wave formation on a hyperabrupt‐doped Schottky diode monolithic GaAs nonlinear transmission line.
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07.50.Ek Circuits and circuit components
84.40.Az Waveguides, transmission lines, striplines
85.30.Hi Surface barrier, boundary, and point contact devices
73.30.+y Surface double layers, Schottky barriers, and work functions

Observation of phonon‐assisted laser operation of AlxGa1−xAs‐GaAs quantum well heterostructures

N. Holonyak, D. W. Nam, W. E. Plano, E. J. Vesely, and K. C. Hsieh

Appl. Phys. Lett. 54, 1022 (1989); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.100786 (3 pages) | Cited 8 times

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Data are presented showing that the key to observing the phonon‐assisted photopumped laser operation of narrow rectangular samples of AlxGa1−xAs‐GaAs quantum well heterostructures (QWHs) is the control of the edge‐to‐edge resonator Q across the sample. If the sample is heat sunk in metal, with metal reflectors folded upward along the edges, the resonator Q across the sample is high, and laser operation across the sample on confined‐particle states (a reference) and along the sample a phonon lower in energy (ΔE≊ℏωLO) is observed. If the sample edges across the sample are left uncoated (weakly reflecting, low Q), laser operation is observed only along the sample (longitudinal modes) but shifted (ΔE≊ℏωLO) below the confined‐particle states and absorption. A QWH rectangle, with proper heat sinking and control of its edge‐to‐edge resonator Q, can act as a hot‐phonon ‘‘spectrometer’’ if it is fully photopumped across its width and is only partially pumped along its length.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.60.Da Resonators, cavities, amplifiers, arrays, and rings
78.55.Cr III-V semiconductors
78.66.Fd III-V semiconductors
78.66.Hf II-VI semiconductors

Infrared diodes fabricated with HgCdTe grown by molecular beam epitaxy on GaAs substrates

J. M. Arias, R. E. DeWames, S. H. Shin, J. G. Pasko, J. S. Chen, and E. R. Gertner

Appl. Phys. Lett. 54, 1025 (1989); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.100787 (3 pages) | Cited 12 times

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Infrared photodiodes fabricated with HgCdTe epilayers grown on GaAs substrates by molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) are reported here for the first time. Growth was carried out on the (211)B orientation of GaAs, and the as‐grown epilayer (x=0.24) was p type. The n‐p junction was formed by Be ion implantation, the resistance‐area product (R0 A) at zero bias was 1.4×103 Ω cm2 , the wavelength cutoff was 8.0 μm, and the quantum efficiency was 22%; all were measured at 77 K. We show that in the diffusion regime diodes fabricated with MBE HgCdTe/GaAs have comparable R0 A product values to those made with HgCdTe grown by bulk techniques. This result discloses new possibilities for advanced monolithic HgCdTe devices based on GaAs integrated circuit technology.
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85.60.Dw Photodiodes; phototransistors; photoresistors
81.15.Hi Molecular, atomic, ion, and chemical beam epitaxy
85.30.De Semiconductor-device characterization, design, and modeling
85.40.-e Microelectronics: LSI, VLSI, ULSI; integrated circuit fabrication technology

Dynamics of carrier capture in an InGaAs/GaAs quantum well trap

D. Y. Oberli, J. Shah, J. L. Jewell, T. C. Damen, and N. Chand

Appl. Phys. Lett. 54, 1028 (1989); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.100788 (3 pages) | Cited 41 times

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We report on a time‐resolved luminescence study of the dynamics of carrier capture in a strained quantum well of InGaAs embedded in GaAs confining layers. Efficient carrier capture takes place at low temperature (T<70 K) and low excitation density (∼250 nJ/cm2 per pulse), while at room temperature and higher excitation density the rate of carrier collection decreases as the carriers fill all the available states in the quantum well allowed by the Fermi–Dirac statistics.
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73.50.Gr Charge carriers: generation, recombination, lifetime, trapping, mean free paths
78.55.Cr III-V semiconductors
78.66.Fd III-V semiconductors
78.66.Hf II-VI semiconductors
73.21.-b Electron states and collective excitations in multilayers, quantum wells, mesoscopic, and nanoscale systems

Hydrogen atom detection in the filament‐assisted diamond deposition environment

F. G. Celii and J. E. Butler

Appl. Phys. Lett. 54, 1031 (1989); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.100789 (3 pages) | Cited 130 times

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The resonance‐enchanced multiphoton ionization (REMPI) technique was employed for detection of gas phase atomic hydrogen in the filament‐asisted diamond growth environment. The H atom REMPI signal varied significantly with the reactant CH4/H2 fraction as well as with the filament temperature. We interpret these observations as evidence for the surface role of atomic hydrogen in the diamond growth mechanism. The spatial resolution of the REMPI technique allowed us to confirm that hydrogen atom transport in the deposition region occurs by diffusion.
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81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)
68.35.Dv Composition, segregation; defects and impurities
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
66.30.J- Diffusion of impurities

Realization of a three‐terminal resonant tunneling device: The bipolar quantum resonant tunneling transistor

M. A. Reed, W. R. Frensley, R. J. Matyi, J. N. Randall, and A. C. Seabaugh

Appl. Phys. Lett. 54, 1034 (1989); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.101357 (3 pages) | Cited 49 times

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A new three‐terminal resonant tunneling structure in which current transport is controlled by directly modulating the potential of the quantum well is proposed and demonstrated. Typical current gains of 50 at room temperature are observed.
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85.30.Mn Junction breakdown and tunneling devices (including resonance tunneling devices)
85.30.Pq Bipolar transistors
73.40.Gk Tunneling
73.40.Kp III-V semiconductor-to-semiconductor contacts, p-n junctions, and heterojunctions

Reinterpretation of degradation kinetics of amorphous silicon

David Redfield and Richard H. Bube

Appl. Phys. Lett. 54, 1037 (1989); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.100790 (3 pages) | Cited 86 times

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Generation of light‐induced metastable defects in amorphous Si:H(a‐Si:H) is shown to follow the same stretched exponential (SE) that describes relaxation of thermally induced metastability at room temperature for a simple case. Apparent power laws derived from the central part of the SE are (time)0.3 and (intensity)0.6, agreeing well with the (time)1/3 and (intensity)2/3 dependences often reported in the mid range of defect density, thus providing an alternative description of defect generation. The SE link between light‐induced and thermally induced instabilities suggests that the thermal effects are also due to defect processes, and offers an alternative defect‐based explanation to a macroscopic ‘‘structural relaxation’’ or ‘‘glass transition.’’
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61.72.Bb Theories and models of crystal defects
71.55.Eq III-V semiconductors
72.20.Jv Charge carriers: generation, recombination, lifetime, and trapping
72.80.Ng Disordered solids

Determination of free carrier concentration profiles and the valence‐band discontinuity energy of Hg0.7Cd0.3Te/Cd(4% Zn)Te heterojunctions using organic semiconductor layers

S. J. Chang, L. Y. Leu, S. R. Forrest, and C. E. Jones

Appl. Phys. Lett. 54, 1040 (1989); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.100791 (3 pages) | Cited 4 times

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Capacitance‐voltage data are utilized to obtain the free‐carrier concentration in n‐ and p‐type Hg1−yCdyTe layers, and to measure the valence‐band discontinuity energy of a p‐type Hg0.7Cd0.3Te/Cd(4% Zn)Te isotype heterojunction. To facilitate measurement, rectifying contact was made to the Hg1−yCdyTe layers using one of two organic materials—metal‐free phthalocyanine and copper phthalocyanine. Contrary to previous results with this heterojunction system, we find that holes are accumulated near the Cd(4% Zn)Te side (rather than Hg1−yCdyTe side). We obtain a valence band discontinuity energy (ΔEv ) equal to (110±20) meV, and a fixed interface charge density of σ=−(5.9±0.3)×1010 cm−2.
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73.50.Gr Charge carriers: generation, recombination, lifetime, trapping, mean free paths
73.40.Lq Other semiconductor-to-semiconductor contacts, p-n junctions, and heterojunctions
73.61.Ga II-VI semiconductors
73.21.-b Electron states and collective excitations in multilayers, quantum wells, mesoscopic, and nanoscale systems

Observation of multiple silicon dangling bond configurations in silicon nitride

D. Jousse, J. Kanicki, and J. H. Stathis

Appl. Phys. Lett. 54, 1043 (1989); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.101558 (3 pages) | Cited 29 times

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We show that silicon dangling bonds with different nearest‐neighbor configurations and energy levels can be resolved by electron spin resonance (ESR) in silicon nitride. Using an in situ bias technique on large‐area metal‐nitride‐silicon structures, we demonstrate that the ESR line in Si‐rich nitride consists of an inhomogeneous distribution of discrete components at different g values. We show that trapping of holes occurs at a site with a g value of 2.0052 corresponding to a pure Si environment, while electron trapping occurs at a site with a g value of 2.0028, corresponding to a pure N environment.
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71.23.-k Electronic structure of disordered solids
73.40.Qv Metal-insulator-semiconductor structures (including semiconductor-to-insulator)
76.30.-v Electron paramagnetic resonance and relaxation
73.20.Hb Impurity and defect levels; energy states of adsorbed species

Subpicosecond electrical pulse generation using photoconductive switches with long carrier lifetimes

D. Krökel, D. Grischkowsky, and M. B. Ketchen

Appl. Phys. Lett. 54, 1046 (1989); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.100792 (2 pages) | Cited 65 times

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Using a new mechanism of electrical pulse generation, we have generated 350 fs (full width at half maximum) electrical pulses on a coplanar transmission line, fabricated on an unimplanted silicon‐on‐sapphire substrate.
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85.30.Hi Surface barrier, boundary, and point contact devices
85.60.Dw Photodiodes; phototransistors; photoresistors
84.40.Az Waveguides, transmission lines, striplines
73.30.+y Surface double layers, Schottky barriers, and work functions
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