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11 Jun 1990

Volume 56, Issue 24, pp. 2367-2473

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Phase gratings in Fe3+‐doped triglycine sulphate single crystals recorded in the ultraviolet spectral region

G. Montemezzani, J. Fousek, P. Günter, and J. Stankowska

Appl. Phys. Lett. 56, 2367 (1990); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.102917 (3 pages) | Cited 9 times

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Phase gratings have been recorded in ferroelectric triglycine sulphate crystals doped with iron by interference of two ultraviolet laser beams in the 350 nm wavelength range. The recording sensitivity increases with temperature and a diffraction efficiency exceeding 60% has been reached in a 5.5‐mm‐thick crystal after several hours of writing with intensities of 0.1 W/cm2. The photoinduced refractive index changes are anisotropic. The recording mechanism is not connected with the photorefractive effect and is believed to be due to the redistribution of hydrogen bonds leading to structural and refractive index modifications.
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42.79.Dj Gratings
78.20.Ci Optical constants (including refractive index, complex dielectric constant, absorption, reflection and transmission coefficients, emissivity)
42.70.-a Optical materials

Soft x‐ray lasing and its spatial characteristics in a lithium‐like silicon plasma

Zhi‐zhan Xu, Pin‐zhong Fan, Zheng‐quan Zhang, Shi‐shen Chen, Li‐huang Lin, Pei‐xiang Lu, Xiao‐fang Wang, An‐di Qian, Jia‐jin Yu, Lan Sun, and Min‐chun Wu

Appl. Phys. Lett. 56, 2370 (1990); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.102918 (3 pages) | Cited 4 times

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Experimental study of soft x‐ray laser carried out on the LF12 Laser Facility of SIOM (Shanghai Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics) is reported. Soft x‐ray amplifications were observed in lithium‐like silicon ions by line‐focused laser irradiation of slab targets. Based on the time‐integrated measurements, the gain coefficients are 1.5 and 1.4 cm−1 for the 5f–3d (88.9 Å) and the 5d–3p (87.3 Å) transitions of lithium‐like silicon ions, respectively. In addition, the spatial characteristics of the laser lines are also presented.
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42.55.Vc X- and γ-ray lasers
52.80.Yr Discharges for spectral sources (including inductively coupled plasma)
52.25.Os Emission, absorption, and scattering of electromagnetic radiation
32.30.Rj X-ray spectra

Repeatability dependence of phase‐change optical disks on morphology of protective layers

R. Chiba, H. Yamazaki, S. Yagi, and S. Fujimori

Appl. Phys. Lett. 56, 2373 (1990); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.102919 (3 pages) | Cited 2 times

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The surface or the Si3N4‐sputtered protective layer of phase change optical recording media was observed with a scanning tunneling microscope. We found the morphology of the protective layer can be controlled by changing the sputtering gas conditions and that overwrite cycle repeatability strongly depends on it. As the Ar gas pressure in the sputtering chamber is decreased, the protective layers become denser and have a flatter surface, and the repeatability is improved from 3×103 to 5×105. The media sensitivity also depends on the morphology of the protective layers. The causes of media deterioration after a large number of overwrite cycles are discussed
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07.79.Cz Scanning tunneling microscopes
61.05.-a Techniques for structure determination
81.15.Cd Deposition by sputtering
68.35.B- Structure of clean surfaces (and surface reconstruction)

In situ reflectivity monitoring of antireflection coatings on semiconductor laser facets through facet loss induced forward voltage changes

Jean Landreau and Hisao Nakajima

Appl. Phys. Lett. 56, 2376 (1990); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.102920 (3 pages) | Cited 1 time

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In situ fully electrical monitoring of the reflectivity of antireflection coatings on semiconductor laser facets is experimentally demonstrated. The operating principle consists of detecting changes in the forward voltage drop induced by the modification of facet reflectivity of a constant current‐driven semiconductor laser. This technique allows one to detect the optimum thickness giving the lowest reflectivity without optical measurement. A reflectivity as low as 1×10−4 was currently obtained with electron beam deposited SiOx films on 1.5 μm buried ridge stripe lasers.
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42.60.Da Resonators, cavities, amplifiers, arrays, and rings
42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
78.20.Ci Optical constants (including refractive index, complex dielectric constant, absorption, reflection and transmission coefficients, emissivity)

Quantum size effects on photoluminescence in ultrafine Si particles

H. Takagi, H. Ogawa, Y. Yamazaki, A. Ishizaki, and T. Nakagiri

Appl. Phys. Lett. 56, 2379 (1990); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.102921 (2 pages) | Cited 448 times

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Visible photoluminescence was observed in ultrafine Si particles at room temperature. Transmission electron microscopy revealed that Si microcrystallites were embedded in a Si oxide matrix for the sample which emitted the light. The emission energy depended on crystallite size in the range from 2.8 to 5 nm. The inverse relation between emission energy and the square of the crystallite size indicates that carrier confinement in the Si microcrystallites causes this photoluminescence phenomenon.
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78.55.Hx Other solid inorganic materials
72.20.Jv Charge carriers: generation, recombination, lifetime, and trapping
72.80.Cw Elemental semiconductors

Wavelength and polarization insensitive 3 dB cross‐coupler power dividers by ion exchange in glass

Christopher P. Hussell, Ramu V. Ramaswamy, Ramakant Srivastava, and Janet L. Jackel

Appl. Phys. Lett. 56, 2381 (1990); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.102922 (3 pages) | Cited 5 times

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We have fabricated fiber‐compatible, low‐loss, wavelength and polarization insensitive 3 dB 2×2 cross couplers by Ag+‐Na+ ion exchange in glass. The couplers were designed using the adiabatic invariance condition for graded‐index channel waveguides. An excellent agreement between theory and experiment is demonstrated.
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42.79.Gn Optical waveguides and couplers
42.70.Ce Glasses, quartz
42.82.-m Integrated optics

Vertical‐cavity surface‐emitting InGaAs/GaAs lasers with planar lateral definition

M. Orenstein, A. C. Von Lehmen, C. Chang‐Hasnain, N. G. Stoffel, J. P. Harbison, L. T. Florez, E. Clausen, and J. E. Jewell

Appl. Phys. Lett. 56, 2384 (1990); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.102923 (3 pages) | Cited 27 times

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A planarity preserving method for the definition of vertical‐cavity surface‐emitting lasers (VC‐SEL) is described. A strained‐layer InGaAs quantum well VC‐SEL structure was grown and lasers were laterally defined using a tailored deep proton implantation process. In these lasers we obtained low threshold current densities of 1000 A/cm2 and efficient cw operation. This method facilitates large‐scale integration of VC‐SEL devices.
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42.60.By Design of specific laser systems
42.60.Da Resonators, cavities, amplifiers, arrays, and rings
42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
81.15.Hi Molecular, atomic, ion, and chemical beam epitaxy

Avalanche enhancement of optical nonlinearities in semiconductor junctions

S. M. Horbatuck, D. F. Prelewitz, and T. G. Brown

Appl. Phys. Lett. 56, 2387 (1990); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.102924 (3 pages) | Cited 2 times

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We examine the effects of avalanche processes on several classes of nonlinear optical interactions in semiconductor junctions. A silicon avalanche photodiode (APD) geometry is predicted to provide large enhancements of both the electronic nonlinearity (free‐carrier plasma interaction) as well as the thermal nonlinearity. The thermal nonlinearity at a wavelength λ=1.06 μm in an APD is examined under normal operating conditions and a nonlinear interaction more than 5000 times that of the unbiased diode is observed.
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85.60.Gz Photodetectors (including infrared and CCD detectors)
85.30.Kk Junction diodes
78.20.Bh Theory, models, and numerical simulation

Generation of narrow‐band ultrasound with a long cavity mode‐locked Nd:YAG laser

J. B. Deaton, A. D. W. McKie, J. B. Spicer, and J. W. Wagner

Appl. Phys. Lett. 56, 2390 (1990); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.102925 (3 pages) | Cited 14 times

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A passively mode‐locked, flashlamp‐pumped Nd:YAG laser with a cavity length of 11.19 m has been developed to study the noncontact generation of narrow‐band ultrasound. The individual mode‐locked pulses acted as separate sources of ultrasound, producing a train of acoustic pulses with a repetition rate of about 13.4 MHz. The ultrasound was generated in an aluminum sample and remotely detected with a path stabilized Michelson interferometer. The energy in the multiple pulse acoustic signal was confined to a considerably reduced spectral range compared with that in a single pulse.
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43.35.Cg Ultrasonic velocity, dispersion, scattering, diffraction, and attenuation in solids; elastic constants
43.35.Ud Thermoacoustics, high temperature acoustics, photoacoustic effect
43.38.Zp Acoustooptic and photoacoustic transducers

Dependence of GaAs etch rate on the angle of incidence of a hydrogen plasma beam excited by electron cyclotron resonance

I. Suemune, A. Kishimoto, K. Hamaoka, Y. Honda, Y. Kan, and M. Yamanishi

Appl. Phys. Lett. 56, 2393 (1990); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.102926 (3 pages) | Cited 4 times

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Hydrogen (H) plasma irradiation effect on (100)  GaAs surfaces was studied. The etching of GaAs surfaces was found to be effectively ceased after some etch at the initial stage when the plasma beam was incident on the surface at a shallow glancing angle. The etched surface was an atomically flat (100)  GaAs surface as previously observed by clear Laue spots in the reflection high‐energy electron diffraction measurement reported by I. Suemune, Y. Kunitsugu, Y. Kan, and M. Yamanishi [Appl. Phys. Lett. 55, 760 (1989)]. A physical model for the newly found relation between the etch rate and the surface structure is discussed.
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81.15.Cd Deposition by sputtering
81.65.-b Surface treatments

Anomalous superperiodicity in scanning tunneling microscope images of graphite

M. Kuwabara, D. R. Clarke, and D. A. Smith

Appl. Phys. Lett. 56, 2396 (1990); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.102906 (3 pages) | Cited 75 times

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An anomalously large periodicity has been observed in scanning tunneling microscope images of a (00.1) graphite sample. The unusual contrast has hexagonal symmetry, a periodicity of 7.7±0.2 nm and is superimposed on the usual a=0.246 nm atomic spacing of graphite. Current‐voltage curves recorded in the scanning tunneling spectroscopy mode from the region showing the superperiodicity exhibit slightly more metallic behavior than those from neighboring normal regions. One possible explanation for the observed periodicity is that it is a rotational moiré pattern resulting from the overlap between a misoriented layer of graphite and the underlying graphite single crystal.
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07.79.Cz Scanning tunneling microscopes
61.05.-a Techniques for structure determination
61.72.Mm Grain and twin boundaries
68.35.B- Structure of clean surfaces (and surface reconstruction)
73.20.At Surface states, band structure, electron density of states

Observations of ferroelectric polarization reversal in sol‐gel processed very thin lead‐zirconate‐titanate films

Lloyd E. Sanchez, Shu‐Yau Wu, and Ishver K. Naik

Appl. Phys. Lett. 56, 2399 (1990); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.102891 (3 pages) | Cited 32 times

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Very thin lead‐zirconate‐titanate films, 500 Å or less in thickness, have been prepared on Pt‐Ti metallized silicon wafers by a sol‐gel processing technique. Excellent ferroelectric, dielectric, and structural properties have been demonstrated. The maximum polarization and the remanent polarization at a switching voltage of 3 V on a film with a Zr/Ti ratio of about 50/50 are 33 and 12 μC/cm2, respectively. The capability of reaching a saturation polarization at a low voltage (∼3 V) on these films suggests that they are very attractive for use in radiation‐hard low‐voltage nonvolatile programmable random access memories.
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77.55.-g Dielectric thin films
77.80.-e Ferroelectricity and antiferroelectricity
81.15.-z Methods of deposition of films and coatings; film growth and epitaxy

Scanning tunneling microscopy imaging of transition‐metal dichalcogenides

G. P. E. M. van Bakel, J. Th. M. De Hosson, and T. Hibma

Appl. Phys. Lett. 56, 2402 (1990); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.103250 (3 pages) | Cited 8 times

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Structural features of TiS2 were studied by scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) and single‐crystal x‐ray diffraction was applied as a complementary technique. STM images in air and at room temperature revealed, besides the trigonal symmetry of the lattice, several new features having this symmetry as well. We conclude that these features are not only to be described by structural defect phenomena which affect sites in the 1T‐CdI2 structure but tetrahedral sites as well. Sample orientation determination by x‐ray diffraction provides a unique relation between feature types and sites. A model is proposed in which displaced Ti atoms account for the observed features.
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68.35.B- Structure of clean surfaces (and surface reconstruction)
07.79.Cz Scanning tunneling microscopes
61.05.-a Techniques for structure determination
73.40.Gk Tunneling
61.72.Ff Direct observation of dislocations and other defects (etch pits, decoration, electron microscopy, x-ray topography, etc.)

Arsenic influence on extended defects produced in silicon by ion implantation

S. Coffa, L. Calcagno, M. Catania, and E. Rimini

Appl. Phys. Lett. 56, 2405 (1990); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.102892 (3 pages)

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Ge ions at 400 keV were implanted on 〈100〉 undoped silicon and on arsenic‐doped silicon wafers maintained at 250 °C. The arsenic concentration ranged between 1.0×1019 and 1.0×1020 atom/cm3. The residual damage is mainly in the form of dislocation loops as measured by channeling and transmission electron microscopy. The amount of extended defects is lower in the arsenic‐doped than in the undoped samples and it is reduced by a factor of 2 at a dopant concentration of 1×1019 atom/cm3. The experimental data are accounted for by a simple model which assumes an enhanced recombination of point defects created by the ion beam, through the formation of arsenic‐point defect pairs in the doped samples.
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61.72.uf Ge and Si
81.40.Ef Cold working, work hardening; annealing, post-deformation annealing, quenching, tempering recovery, and crystallization
66.30.J- Diffusion of impurities

Rapid measurement of static and dynamic surface forces

William A. Ducker and Robert F. Cook

Appl. Phys. Lett. 56, 2408 (1990); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.102893 (3 pages) | Cited 16 times

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We present a technique for rapid measurement of surface forces using an ac force microscope. Measurement of both the amplitude and relative phase of a cantilever probe allows simultaneous and rapid determination of static and velocity‐dependent forces of order nN over nm length scales. Using this technique, we have also demonstrated the high lateral spatial resolution of the force microscope in the measurement of surface forces.
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68.35.Gy Mechanical properties; surface strains
68.37.-d Microscopy of surfaces, interfaces, and thin films
82.65.+r Surface and interface chemistry; heterogeneous catalysis at surfaces

Localized electrodeposition induced by Joule heat at a constriction

C. Julian Chen

Appl. Phys. Lett. 56, 2411 (1990); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.102894 (3 pages) | Cited 6 times

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We report a novel localized electrodeposition process based on localized Joule heating at a constriction and the temperature dependence of the equilibrium potential at a metal‐electrolyte interface. Assuming a local temperature rise of 50 K, a deposition rate as high as 2 μm per minute of copper is theoretically predicted in acidified copper sulfate solution, which is verified by a series of experiments. Scanning electron microscopy micrographs show that the deposited copper is dense and crystalline. As an immediate application of this novel phenomenon, a method of self‐induced repair for incipient opens, i.e., a self‐locating and self‐terminating process to treat constrictions in circuits, is established.
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82.45.-h Electrochemistry and electrophoresis
44.25.+f Natural convection
81.15.Lm Liquid phase epitaxy; deposition from liquid phases (melts, solutions, and surface layers on liquids)
66.10.Ed Ionic conduction

Optical detection of growth oscillations in high vacuum metalorganic vapor phase epitaxy

J. Jönsson, K. Deppert, S. Jeppesen, G. Paulsson, L. Samuelson, and P. Schmidt

Appl. Phys. Lett. 56, 2414 (1990); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.102895 (3 pages) | Cited 13 times

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We report the first measurements of growth oscillations in high vacuum metalorganic vapor phase epitaxy (MOVPE). The reflection difference response of the surface is used for real‐time monitoring of the layer‐by‐layer growth of GaAs from triethylgallium (TEG) and arsine. The frequency of the optically detected growth oscillations is found to be proportional to the flux of TEG and to the growth rate. We expect our results to extend the more limited ranges of applicability offered by reflection high‐energy electron diffraction to allow the study of growth oscillations also in other MOVPE‐related growth techniques.
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81.15.Kk Vapor phase epitaxy; growth from vapor phase
81.15.-z Methods of deposition of films and coatings; film growth and epitaxy
07.60.Hv Refractometers and reflectometers

Thermal instability of anodic sulfide films on Hg1−xCdxTe

Zongfu Ma and Rui Li

Appl. Phys. Lett. 56, 2417 (1990); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.103189 (2 pages) | Cited 1 time

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Thermal instability of anodic sulfide films on Hg1−xCdxTe was studied. Instead of using laser ionization or ion backscattering in studying oxidic films after heat treatment, we used x‐ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) in analyzing nonaqueous sulfidization. In this case, XPS is feasible, simpler, and has the advantage of better resolution. Hg evaporation was investigated here by measuring Te(3d5/2) of Te oxide peak rather than Hg lines. Correlation between thermal instability and composition x was obtained.
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68.35.Md Surface thermodynamics, surface energies
81.40.Gh Other heat and thermomechanical treatments
85.40.Hp Lithography, masks and pattern transfer

Van der Waals bonding of GaAs epitaxial liftoff films onto arbitrary substrates

E. Yablonovitch, D. M. Hwang, T. J. Gmitter, L. T. Florez, and J. P. Harbison

Appl. Phys. Lett. 56, 2419 (1990); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.102896 (3 pages) | Cited 159 times

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Epitaxial liftoff is an alternative to lattice‐mismatched heteroepitaxial growth. Multilayer AlxGa1−xAs epitaxial films are separated from their growth substrates by undercutting an AlAs release layer in HF acid (selectivity ≳108 for x≤0.4). The resulting AlxGa1−xAs films tend to bond by natural intermolecular surface forces to any smooth substrate (Van der Waals bonding). We have demonstrated GaAs thin‐film bonding by surface tension forces onto Si, glass, sapphire, LiNbO3, InP, and diamond substrates, as well as self‐bonding onto GaAs substrates. In transmission electron microscopy the substrate and thin‐film atomic lattices can be simultaneously imaged, showing only a thin (20–100 Å) amorphous layer in between.
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81.15.-z Methods of deposition of films and coatings; film growth and epitaxy
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
81.20.-n Methods of materials synthesis and materials processing
85.40.Hp Lithography, masks and pattern transfer

Photoinduced electric fields in type II heterostructures

M. Jezewski, F. Mollot, and R. Planel

Appl. Phys. Lett. 56, 2422 (1990); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.102897 (3 pages) | Cited 1 time

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Specially designed structures have been grown in the GaAs/GaAlAs/AlAs system, in order to get a spatial separation of photocreated electrons and holes and thus modify the band profile under illumination in a nonstandard way. The photoinduced electric field is measured by the Stark Shift of the probing quantum well luminescence. Fields as high as 25 kV/cm are obtained under 100 W/cm2 cw illumination.
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72.40.+w Photoconduction and photovoltaic effects
73.40.Kp III-V semiconductor-to-semiconductor contacts, p-n junctions, and heterojunctions
73.61.Ey III-V semiconductors
71.35.-y Excitons and related phenomena

Determination of Γ electron and light hole effective masses in AlxGa1−xAs on the basis of energy gaps, band‐gap offsets, and energy levels in AlxGa1−xAs/GaAs quantum wells

Ľ. Hrivnák

Appl. Phys. Lett. 56, 2425 (1990); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.102898 (3 pages) | Cited 18 times

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Experimental data of energy gaps, band offsets, and energy levels in AlxGa1−xAs/GaAs quantum wells are utilized for the determination of Γ electron and light hole effective masses in AlxGa1−xAs compounds on the basis of the author’s relations between these quantities. The temperature dependences of electron and light hole effective masses in GaAs are also obtained.
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73.21.-b Electron states and collective excitations in multilayers, quantum wells, mesoscopic, and nanoscale systems
73.40.Kp III-V semiconductor-to-semiconductor contacts, p-n junctions, and heterojunctions
78.66.Fd III-V semiconductors
78.66.Hf II-VI semiconductors
72.80.Ey III-V and II-VI semiconductors

Room‐temperature InAsxSbyP1−x−y light‐emitting diodes for CO2 detection at 4.2 μm

A. Krier

Appl. Phys. Lett. 56, 2428 (1990); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.102899 (2 pages) | Cited 13 times

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By using a graded composition InAsSbP quaternary layer grown by liquid phase epitaxy it was possible to fabricate light‐emitting diodes which emit near 4.2 μm at room temperature, corresponding to the fundamental absorption of CO2 gas.
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81.15.Lm Liquid phase epitaxy; deposition from liquid phases (melts, solutions, and surface layers on liquids)
85.60.Gz Photodetectors (including infrared and CCD detectors)

Epitaxial growth of extended solubility CdxPb1−xTe alloys on BaF2 by rf magnetron sputtering

J. G. Cook, S. R. Das, D. J. Lockwood, J. P. McCaffrey, and P. Y. Timbrell

Appl. Phys. Lett. 56, 2430 (1990); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.102900 (3 pages) | Cited 2 times

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Epitaxial (111)CdxPb1−xTe//(111)BaF2 films in the rocksalt structure have been made by codeposition from CdTe and PbTe magnetron targets in an rf discharge onto chemipolished substrates at 320 °C. Films were prepared with x values from 0 to 0.47, well past the range of bulk thermodynamic solubility. Raman spectroscopy, Auger spectroscopy, and transmission electron microscopy showed phase segregation had not occurred. The lattice spacing in the growth direction was observed to be insensitive to x.
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81.15.Cd Deposition by sputtering
81.15.Kk Vapor phase epitaxy; growth from vapor phase

Refractive switch for two‐dimensional electrons

J. Spector, H. L. Stormer, K. W. Baldwin, L. N. Pfeiffer, and K. W. West

Appl. Phys. Lett. 56, 2433 (1990); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.102901 (3 pages) | Cited 28 times

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A refractive electrostatic prism is used to switch a beam of ballistic electrons between different collectors in the two‐dimensional electron gas of an AlGaAs‐GaAs heterostructure. This represents a new concept in electronic switching which utilizes the electrostatically controlled refraction of ballistic electrons in high‐mobility two‐dimensional systems.
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85.30.Tv Field effect devices
72.80.Ey III-V and II-VI semiconductors
72.20.Fr Low-field transport and mobility; piezoresistance
73.21.-b Electron states and collective excitations in multilayers, quantum wells, mesoscopic, and nanoscale systems

Stability of AlAs in AlxGa1−xAs‐AlAs‐GaAs quantum well heterostructures

J. M. Dallesasse, P. Gavrilovic, N. Holonyak, R. W. Kaliski, D. W. Nam, E. J. Vesely, and R. D. Burnham

Appl. Phys. Lett. 56, 2436 (1990); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.102902 (3 pages) | Cited 27 times

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Data are presented on the long‐term (≳8 yr) degradation of AlxGa1−xAs‐AlAs ‐GaAs quantum well heterostructure material because of the instability of underlying (internal) AlAs layers. Material containing thicker (>0.4 μm) AlAs ‘‘buried’’ layers (confining layers) is found to be much less stable than material containing thinner (≲200 Å) AlAs layers. Hydrolysis of the AlAs layers because of cleaved edges and pinholes in the cap layers leads to the deterioration.
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82.65.+r Surface and interface chemistry; heterogeneous catalysis at surfaces
82.30.Nr Association, addition, insertion, cluster formation
82.30.Lp Decomposition reactions (pyrolysis, dissociation, and fragmentation)
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