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2 Jul 1990

Volume 57, Issue 1, pp. 1-101

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Modulation bandwidth of high‐power single‐mode semiconductor lasers: Effect of intraband gain saturation

Govind P. Agrawal

Appl. Phys. Lett. 57, 1 (1990); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.103568 (3 pages) | Cited 21 times

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The effect of intraband gain saturation on the modulation bandwidth of single‐mode semiconductor lasers is discussed by using a nonperturbative form of the optical gain that is valid at high‐power levels. The small‐signal analysis of the modified rate equations is used to predict the power dependence of the modulation bandwidth. The results are used to discuss the ultimate modulation bandwidth of InGaAsP distributed feedback semiconductor lasers and its dependence on various device parameters.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.60.Fc Modulation, tuning, and mode locking
63.10.+a General theory

Reduction of the CO2 decomposition in the transversely excited atmospheric CO2 laser discharge plasma by a very small amount of the water vapor

Hirokazu Hokazono and Minoru Obara

Appl. Phys. Lett. 57, 4 (1990); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.103574 (3 pages) | Cited 6 times

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Using a comprehensive theoretical model, we have theoretically clarified for the first time that the homogeneous catalytic reaction caused by a very small amount of water vapor (<100 ppm) in the closed‐cycle, transversely excited atmospheric (TEA) CO2 laser discharge plasma could considerably reduce the saturation value of the CO2 molecules decomposition. Effects of the water vapor at this concentration level have been overlooked in the previous investigations. A small concentration variation of the residual water vapor in the experimental laser chambers is thought to be one of the reasons for the considerable disagreements among the published data about the CO2 equilibrium decomposition level.
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42.55.Lt Gas lasers including excimer and metal-vapor lasers
82.30.Lp Decomposition reactions (pyrolysis, dissociation, and fragmentation)
52.80.Hc Glow; corona
78.60.Ps Chemiluminescence

Photorefractive effect in ferroelectric lead germanate

Wiesław Królikowski, Mark Cronin‐Golomb, and Bo Su Chen

Appl. Phys. Lett. 57, 7 (1990); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104232 (3 pages) | Cited 8 times

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The photorefractive effect is demonstrated for the first time in ferroelectric lead germanate crystal (Pb5Ge3O11). An intensity coupling constant of Γ=2.3 cm−1 was measured at wavelength λ=514.5 nm in two‐beam coupling experiments.
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78.20.Ci Optical constants (including refractive index, complex dielectric constant, absorption, reflection and transmission coefficients, emissivity)
78.20.Jq Electro-optical effects
42.70.-a Optical materials

cw laser irradiation of GaAs: Arsenic formation and photoluminescence degradation

I. H. Campbell and P. M. Fauchet

Appl. Phys. Lett. 57, 10 (1990); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.103564 (3 pages) | Cited 11 times

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Low‐power, cw laser irradiation of GaAs leads to the formation of solid arsenic at the sample surface and to the degradation of band‐gap photoluminescence (PL) efficiency. In situ Raman scattering and PL are used to measure the lattice and carrier temperature in addition to monitoring the arsenic formation and PL efficiency. Both effects are athermal, do not involve surface oxidation, and occur in n,p and semi‐insulating GaAs prepared by different growth techniques. These observations suggest that arsenic formation and PL decrease may both be the result of a nonradiative recombination process.
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61.80.Ba Ultraviolet, visible, and infrared radiation effects (including laser radiation)
78.55.Cr III-V semiconductors
81.65.-b Surface treatments

Optical properties of quantum steps

H. Shen, Fred H. Pollak, and Raphael Tsu

Appl. Phys. Lett. 57, 13 (1990); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.103565 (3 pages) | Cited 4 times

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We have developed a method to calculate the density of states of quantum steps which allows us to sum the optical transitions for the determination of optical properties. We have demonstrated that quantum steps introduce quasistationary states. The calculated peaks agree well with the photoreflectance result.
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78.20.Bh Theory, models, and numerical simulation
42.50.-p Quantum optics

Far‐infrared frequency modulation by optically induced gratings in silicon

H. Alius and G. Dodel

Appl. Phys. Lett. 57, 16 (1990); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.103566 (3 pages) | Cited 2 times

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Frequency modulation of 119 μm (2.5 THz) H2O laser radiation by optically induced gratings in Si is reported. The gratings were excited using two diode‐pumped, frequency‐tunable Nd:YAG lasers. Frequency shifts up to 15 MHz were generated. With 26 mW effective optical exitation power a maximal efficiency of 1.5×10−3 was achieved, with a 3 dB roll‐off frequency of 35 kHz for the Si wafer used in the experiment. Results of numerical model calculations are presented, which show that efficiencies in the 10% region should be achievable with moderate optical excitation power. It is pointed out that the principle of optically induced gratings offers a promising tool to transfer frequency modulation from the near‐infrared to the far‐infrared spectral range.
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78.20.-e Optical properties of bulk materials and thin films
42.60.Fc Modulation, tuning, and mode locking
42.30.Lr Modulation and optical transfer functions
42.79.Dj Gratings

Quantum beats of light hole and heavy hole excitons in quantum wells

Karl Leo, Theo C. Damen, Jagdeep Shah, Ernst O. Göbel, and Klaus Köhler

Appl. Phys. Lett. 57, 19 (1990); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.103567 (3 pages) | Cited 91 times

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We report the first observation of quantum beats due to the interference of the polarization decay of heavy hole and light hole excitons in semiconductor quantum wells.
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73.21.-b Electron states and collective excitations in multilayers, quantum wells, mesoscopic, and nanoscale systems
71.35.-y Excitons and related phenomena
42.50.Md Optical transient phenomena: quantum beats, photon echo, free-induction decay, dephasings and revivals, optical nutation, and self-induced transparency

Optical beam deflection signal from a single microparticle

Jiaqi Wu, Takehiko Kitamori, and Tsuguo Sawada

Appl. Phys. Lett. 57, 22 (1990); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.103569 (3 pages) | Cited 8 times

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The optical beam deflection (OBD) method was applied to the measurement of a single microparticle, and the signal from one resin microparticle of 200–600 μm in diameter could be detected. Based on the frequency characteristics and size dependence of the OBD signal, this method was found to be more sensitive for a smaller particle, and more effective than the photoacoustic method. Theoretical considerations showed that these characteristics were attributable to the enhancement of the temperature field gradient due to the curvature of the microparticle.
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42.25.Fx Diffraction and scattering
43.38.Zp Acoustooptic and photoacoustic transducers
78.20.Ci Optical constants (including refractive index, complex dielectric constant, absorption, reflection and transmission coefficients, emissivity)
07.60.-j Optical instruments and equipment

Preparation of pyrite films by plasma‐assisted sulfurization of thin iron films

S. Bausch, B. Sailer, H. Keppner, G. Willeke, E. Bucher, and G. Frommeyer

Appl. Phys. Lett. 57, 25 (1990); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104233 (3 pages) | Cited 26 times

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Pyrite films were prepared using the pure elements as source materials: thin iron films were evaporated on quartz substrates and exposed to a sulfur plasma. The process was controlled by a transmission measurement. X‐ray spectroscopy was used to characterize the films and preliminary optical and electrical measurements were carried out.
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81.15.-z Methods of deposition of films and coatings; film growth and epitaxy
82.30.Hk Chemical exchanges (substitution, atom transfer, abstraction, disproportionation, and group exchange)
82.65.+r Surface and interface chemistry; heterogeneous catalysis at surfaces
73.61.Cw Elemental semiconductors
73.61.Jc Amorphous semiconductors; glasses
73.61.Le Other inorganic semiconductors

Imaging alkane layers at the liquid/graphite interface with the scanning tunneling microscope

G. C. McGonigal, R. H. Bernhardt, and D. J. Thomson

Appl. Phys. Lett. 57, 28 (1990); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104234 (3 pages) | Cited 138 times

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We have directly imaged n‐alkane layers adsorbed at the liquid/graphite interface using a scanning tunneling microscope. The layers possessed a high degree of two‐dimensional ordering. The adsorbate was observed to enhance the tunneling current, and the atomic structure of the images was dominated by features associated with the substrate. These systems are excellent vehicles for studies concerning the imaging mechanism of adsorbed organic layers because of their stability and simplicity.
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68.08.-p Liquid-solid interfaces
68.43.-h Chemisorption/physisorption: adsorbates on surfaces
82.65.+r Surface and interface chemistry; heterogeneous catalysis at surfaces
73.40.Gk Tunneling
07.79.Cz Scanning tunneling microscopes
61.05.-a Techniques for structure determination

Tunneling microscopy and spectroscopy of molecular beam epitaxy grown GaAs‐AlGaAs interfaces

O. Albrektsen, D. J. Arent, H. P. Meier, and H. W. M. Salemink

Appl. Phys. Lett. 57, 31 (1990); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.103563 (3 pages) | Cited 72 times

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We report the first observation of GaAs/AlGaAs compound multilayers and interfaces at atomic scale resolution. Using a scanning tunneling microscope, the atomic registry in the epitaxial layers and their interfaces was observed. The semiconductor band gaps and valence‐band offsets relative to the Fermi level are obtained via local spectroscopy in the GaAs and AlGaAs multilayers.
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68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
81.15.Hi Molecular, atomic, ion, and chemical beam epitaxy
85.30.Kk Junction diodes
07.79.Cz Scanning tunneling microscopes
61.05.-a Techniques for structure determination

Quantum effects and bit errors in mesoscopic logic and memory circuits

K. M. S. V. Bandara and D. D. Coon

Appl. Phys. Lett. 57, 34 (1990); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.103570 (3 pages) | Cited 1 time

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Bistability in well known circuits employing devices with nonlinear current‐voltage characteristics is shown to be a classical concept which can be modified by quantum mechanical effects. The classically stable states ‘‘0’’ and ‘‘1’’ are shown to correspond to a single stable quantum mechanical state and a metastable state. Bit error rates associated with metastable state lifetimes are estimated for circuits employing quantum well devices and found to be appreciable in the mesoscopic regime (feature sizes ≲0.2 μm). 
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73.21.-b Electron states and collective excitations in multilayers, quantum wells, mesoscopic, and nanoscale systems
73.40.Gk Tunneling
85.40.-e Microelectronics: LSI, VLSI, ULSI; integrated circuit fabrication technology

Photoemission studies of the hydrogenated silicon‐gold interface

Z. H. Lu, T. K. Sham, and P. R. Norton

Appl. Phys. Lett. 57, 37 (1990); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.103571 (3 pages) | Cited 7 times

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The formation of the gold‐silicon interface on c‐Si(100) and hydrogen‐passivated c‐Si(100) has been studied by synchrotron radiation photoemission spectroscopy. The results show that the presence of Si‐H on the surface (a) quenches the surface dangling bond states and (b) reduces the Au‐Si interaction at the initial stages of interface formation. On clean c‐Si(100), Au atoms interact with the surface silicon dangling bonds at submonolayer coverages. Rapid diffusion of Au into silicon is observed on both surfaces. A nonabrupt SixAu1−x ‐Si interface is formed for gold on either hydrogenated or pure c‐Si(100).
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81.65.-b Surface treatments
73.30.+y Surface double layers, Schottky barriers, and work functions
78.30.-j Infrared and Raman spectra
78.40.Fy Semiconductors

Three‐center Auger excitation mechanism of ytterbium intrashell emission in ZnS

K. Światek, A. Suchocki, and M. Godlewski

Appl. Phys. Lett. 57, 40 (1990); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.103572 (3 pages) | Cited 5 times

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A new, very efficient excitation mechanism of Yb intrashell 4f‐4f emission in ZnS is reported. We show that the energy transfer from donor‐acceptor pairs to Yb sites leads to Yb ionization (Yb3+⇒Yb2+), followed by capture of ionized carriers via the Yb3+ external excited state (bound exciton state), an energy transfer to the Yb3+ 4f shell, and Yb3+ 4f‐4f radiative recombination. Since three centers (donor, acceptor, and Yb) participate in the energy transfer process in which Yb is first ionized, the above excitation mechanism is of three‐center Auger transition nature. A similar excitation mechanism is expected for Eu, Sm, and Tm in ZnS, i.e., for these rare earth (RE) ions which can change their charge state from 3+ to 2+ in this lattice. For wider band‐gap sulfides, such as CaS or SrS, this mechanism can be of importance also for other REs, such as, for example, Pr, Dy, and Er.
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79.20.Fv Electron impact: Auger emission
78.55.Et II-VI semiconductors
76.30.Kg Rare-earth ions and impurities

Atomic structure at the LaSi2−x/Si(100) interface

J. J. Qian, Y. T. Wang, J. Ho, and C. C. Hsu

Appl. Phys. Lett. 57, 43 (1990); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104235 (3 pages) | Cited 2 times

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Interfaces between Si(100) and LaSi2−x lattices formed by rapid thermal annealing at ∼900 °C for 10 s have been studied using high‐resolution transmission electron microscopy. The experimental results show that the C axis of the LaSi2−x unit cell points to the 〈332〉Si direction. A model suggesting the {100} planes of LaSi2−x grown on a {113}Si surface has been put forward to account for the observed tilting growth of LaSi2−x disilicide on the Si(100) surface.
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68.35.Fx Diffusion; interface formation
68.35.B- Structure of clean surfaces (and surface reconstruction)
68.55.Ln Defects and impurities: doping, implantation, distribution, concentration, etc.
07.79.Cz Scanning tunneling microscopes
61.05.-a Techniques for structure determination

Two‐phonon laser operation (4.2–77 K) of photopumped AlxGa1−xAs‐GaAs quantum well heterostructures

D. W. Nam, N. Holonyak, E. J. Vesely, and R. D. Dupuis

Appl. Phys. Lett. 57, 46 (1990); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.103573 (3 pages) | Cited 1 time

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Data are presented showing that photopumped AlxGa1−xAs‐GaAs quantum well heterostructures (QWHs) are capable of stimulated emission (because of the large confined phonon population) one and two longitudinal optical (LO) phonons below the lowest confined‐particle electron‐to‐heavy hole transition (e1→h1). The phonon‐assisted laser operation two phonons below the e1→h1 transition (ΔE=2ℏωLO=2×36 meV) is identified unambiguously using (on a single sample) two types of heat sink configurations, high Q to turn on and low Q to turn off the stimulated emission on the e1→h1 (reference) transition. Because the one‐ and the two‐phonon laser operations (4.2 K) are spectrally very narrow, narrower than that on QW confined‐particle transitions, their separation affords an accurate measurement of QW phonon energy (ℏωLO=36.1 meV).
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
63.20.D- Phonon states and bands, normal modes, and phonon dispersion
71.36.+c Polaritons (including photon-phonon and photon-magnon interactions)

Importance of adsorption in ion beam induced deposition of carbon

S. J. Kirch and D. E. Seeger

Appl. Phys. Lett. 57, 49 (1990); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104100 (3 pages)

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Ion beam induced deposition of carbon films has been studied as a function of temperature and pressure for both 2‐bromo vinyl benzene and 2‐bromo ethyl benzene. In contrast to recently published results involving vinyl and ethyl benzene, deposition is possible for both materials at and below room temperature for a wide range of pressures. Further, deposition yield for each material scales directly with its vapor pressure at the deposition temperature. This behavior shows that physical adsorption plays the dominant role in determining deposition properties. In addition, the yield of 2‐bromo vinyl benzene is consistently higher than 2‐bromo ethyl benzene at a given normalized pressure. The importance of the double bond on the vinyl substituent observed in previous work is simply a manifestation of enhanced physical adsorption due to the presence of this double bond.
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81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)
81.15.Jj Ion and electron beam-assisted deposition; ion plating
68.43.-h Chemisorption/physisorption: adsorbates on surfaces
81.15.-z Methods of deposition of films and coatings; film growth and epitaxy

High‐efficiency Al0.22Ga0.78As solar cells grown by molecular beam epitaxy

M. R. Melloch, S. P. Tobin, C. Bajgar, A. Keshavarzi, T. B. Stellwag, G. B. Lush, M. S. Lundstrom, and K. Emery

Appl. Phys. Lett. 57, 52 (1990); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.103575 (3 pages) | Cited 1 time

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The quality of pn junction photodetectors made of Al0.2Ga0.8As has been investigated as a first step in the optimization of tandem solar cells. We have obtained 1 sun AM1.5 efficiencies of 16.1% for 0.25 cm2 Al0.22Ga0.78As solar cells fabricated from molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) material. This efficiency is 3.2 percentage points higher than the previously best reported efficiency of 12.9% for an Al0.2Ga0.8As solar cell fabricated from MBE material.
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73.50.Pz Photoconduction and photovoltaic effects
84.60.Jt Photoelectric conversion
85.60.Gz Photodetectors (including infrared and CCD detectors)
81.15.-z Methods of deposition of films and coatings; film growth and epitaxy

Energy levels of very short‐period (GaAs)n‐(AlAs)n superlattices

Weikun Ge, M. D. Sturge, W. D. Schmidt, L. N. Pfeiffer, and K. W. West

Appl. Phys. Lett. 57, 55 (1990); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.103576 (3 pages) | Cited 34 times

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The energy levels of very short‐period (GaAs)n‐(AlAs)n superlattices (n≤4) were investigated by photoluminescence (PL). The results show that these superlattices are type II but the lowest conduction bands are Xx,y for n≤3 and Xz for n=4, respectively. (Here Xz is the valley with k parallel to the growth axis.) In both cases the X valleys are very close to each other. PL decay, PL excitation, and PL under uniaxial stress confirm this identification. Al0.5Ga0.5As shows very different behavior, showing that even for n=1 our samples are true superlattices.
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73.21.-b Electron states and collective excitations in multilayers, quantum wells, mesoscopic, and nanoscale systems
78.55.Cr III-V semiconductors

Bias circuit effects on the current‐voltage characteristic of double‐barrier tunneling structures: Experimental and theoretical results

C. Y. Belhadj, K. P. Martin, S. Ben Amor, J. J. L. Rascol, R. J. Higgins, R. C. Potter, H. Hier, and E. Hempfling

Appl. Phys. Lett. 57, 58 (1990); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.103577 (3 pages) | Cited 15 times

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Using the stable, dc current‐voltage (I‐V) curve measured from a double‐barrier resonant tunneling structure, we have studied the effects of external circuit elements on device oscillations. A simulation, using the experimental I‐V and a simple circuit model for the biasing arrangement, showed that hysteresis and vertical jumps appear in the current‐voltage curve when the circuit oscillates. This observation is supported by experimental results obtained on the same device with external circuit elements intentionally added to the biasing configuration.
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73.21.-b Electron states and collective excitations in multilayers, quantum wells, mesoscopic, and nanoscale systems
73.40.Gk Tunneling
73.40.Kp III-V semiconductor-to-semiconductor contacts, p-n junctions, and heterojunctions

Lateral confinement in quantum nanostructures: Self‐consistent screening potentials

James H. Luscombe and Marshall Luban

Appl. Phys. Lett. 57, 61 (1990); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.103578 (3 pages) | Cited 12 times

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Self‐consistent lateral confining potentials and carrier density functions are computed for quantum nanostructures utilizing a finite‐temperature Thomas–Fermi approximation for the conduction electrons and the assumption of a uniform background of donor charges. The formation of the confining potential is the result of a nonlinear, electrostatic screening process which is determined by the Fermi level pinning properties of the lateral surfaces, the doping level, and the lateral dimensions. We find that the ability to populate nanostructures with carriers depends sensitively upon the details of the system.
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73.21.-b Electron states and collective excitations in multilayers, quantum wells, mesoscopic, and nanoscale systems
71.15.-m Methods of electronic structure calculations
73.30.+y Surface double layers, Schottky barriers, and work functions
85.30.De Semiconductor-device characterization, design, and modeling

Picosecond photoconductive response of polycrystalline silicon thin films

C. Shu, B. B. Hu, X.‐C. Zhang, P. Mei, and E. S. Yang

Appl. Phys. Lett. 57, 64 (1990); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.103579 (3 pages) | Cited 4 times

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Using autocorrelation measurement, we have studied the picosecond photoconductivity of as‐deposited, fine‐grain polycrystalline silicon thin films. A strong correlation between photoconductive decay time and polycrystalline silicon deposition temperature has been observed. The fastest autocorrelated photoconductive response is 9 ps full width at half maximum, and is obtained from a polycrystalline silicon sample deposited at 590 °C. We estimated the carrier mobility from the peak autocorrelated current, as well as from the average photocurrent of a single gap. These two values show a large difference for samples deposited at relatively high temperatures, which can be explained by imperfect metal‐semiconductor ohmic contacts.
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73.50.Pz Photoconduction and photovoltaic effects
72.80.Cw Elemental semiconductors
73.40.Ns Metal-nonmetal contacts

Time‐of‐flight measurement of electron velocity in an In0.52Al0.48As/In0.53Ga0.47As /In0.52Al0.48As double heterostructure

Naoteru Shigekawa, Tomofumi Furuta, and Kunihiro Arai

Appl. Phys. Lett. 57, 67 (1990); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.103580 (3 pages) | Cited 22 times

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The electron velocity versus electric field (v‐E) relationship was measured between 0 and 12 kV/cm at room temperature for a selectively Be‐doped In0.52Al0.48As/In0.53Ga0.47As /In0.52Al0.48As double heterostructure. It was found that the observed electron velocity is greater than that previously measured for an AlGaAs/GaAs/AlGaAs double heterostructure over the enitre range of field investigated. This indicates the superiority of In0.53Ga0.47As as a material for high‐speed semiconductor devices. The experimental results were also compared with those of the Monte Carlo calculation, and a remarkable discrepancy between the experiment and the calculation was found above the threshold field.
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72.80.Ey III-V and II-VI semiconductors
73.50.Fq High-field and nonlinear effects
73.61.Ey III-V semiconductors

Photoluminescence study of hydrogen passivation in GaAs and AlGaAs by the photochemical vapor deposition system

Yang‐Fang Chen, Chong‐Sheng Tsai, and Yuanhei Chang

Appl. Phys. Lett. 57, 70 (1990); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.103581 (3 pages) | Cited 15 times

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It is shown for the first time that hydrogen passivation can be made by using a photochemical vapor deposition system. Unlike the common methods, this new method of hydrogenation has no electron or ion bombardment, thus the sample surface will not be damaged during processing. The effects of hydrogenation are confirmed by the enhancement of photoluminescence intensity. A strong increase in the luminescence intensity (a factor of 23) has been observed which is comparable to the results of rf glow discharge systems.
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78.55.Cr III-V semiconductors
81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)
82.50.Bc Processes caused by infrared radiation
82.50.Hp Processes caused by visible and UV light
85.40.Ls Metallization, contacts, interconnects; device isolation

Activation efficiency of a B√3×√3/Si(111) structure covered with molecular beam deposited amorphous Si or SiOx

T. Tatsumi, I. Hirosawa, T. Niino, H. Hirayama, and J. Mizuki

Appl. Phys. Lett. 57, 73 (1990); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.103582 (3 pages) | Cited 2 times

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The electric activation efficiencies for a‐Si/B√3×√3/Si(111) and a‐Si/B/Si(100) systems were measured before and after annealing by Hall measurement. The efficiency of the latter was lower than that of the former before annealing. But, after annealing, it rose to the former’s level, while the former’s level remained unchanged. This difference strongly suggests that almost all boron atoms are activated at the a‐Si/Si(111) interface because of the √3×√3 structure formation. The B√3×√3 structure was also preserved at the interface between the Si(111) and the SiOx layer, which had been fabricated by the codeposition of Si and O2 molecular beams at room temperature. The electric activation efficiency for B√3×√3 at the interface between SiOx and Si(111) was lower than that between a‐Si and Si(111). An a‐Si overlayer was effective to activate the boron which formed a √3×√3 structure at the interface.
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81.15.Hi Molecular, atomic, ion, and chemical beam epitaxy
68.55.Ln Defects and impurities: doping, implantation, distribution, concentration, etc.
68.35.Fx Diffusion; interface formation
73.21.-b Electron states and collective excitations in multilayers, quantum wells, mesoscopic, and nanoscale systems
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