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6 Aug 1990

Volume 57, Issue 6, pp. 531-636

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Confinement of charge carriers and molecular excitons within 5‐nm‐thick emitter layer in organic electroluminescent devices with a double heterostructure

Chihaya Adachi, Tetsuo Tsutsui, and Shogo Saito

Appl. Phys. Lett. 57, 531 (1990); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.103638 (3 pages) | Cited 220 times

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Organic electroluminescent devices with a double‐heterostructure indium‐tin‐oxide substrate/hole transport layer/emitter layer/electron transport layer/MgAg have been fabricated by vacuum vapor deposition. The organic carrier transport and emitter layers were composed of amorphous films. In the double‐heterostructure devices, the luminance continued to lie in high level, even when the emitter thickness was 50 Å. The confinement of charge carriers and molecular excitons within a narrow emitter layer was achieved.
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85.60.Jb Light-emitting devices
72.80.Le Polymers; organic compounds (including organic semiconductors)
73.50.Gr Charge carriers: generation, recombination, lifetime, trapping, mean free paths
71.35.-y Excitons and related phenomena

Realization of high coupling coefficients in 1.53 μm InGaAsP/InP first‐order quarter‐wave shifted distributed feedback lasers

H. Hillmer, S. Hansmann, and H. Burkhard

Appl. Phys. Lett. 57, 534 (1990); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.103639 (3 pages) | Cited 2 times

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Coupling coefficients as high as 300 cm−1 have been achieved and investigated in the performance of distributed feedback lasers. High coupling has several important advantages like lower feedback sensitivity, and lower influence on facet reflectivity, thus easy handling for coatings without any penalty in terms of mode hopping. We obtain a side‐mode suppression ratio as high as 51.2 dB. 8 Gb/s ‘‘nonreturn to zero’’ modulation is demonstrated.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.79.Sz Optical communication systems, multiplexers, and demultiplexers
42.60.By Design of specific laser systems
42.60.Fc Modulation, tuning, and mode locking

Intracavity frequency doubling of a Nd:YAG laser with an organic nonlinear optical crystal

Stephen Ducharme, W. P. Risk, W. E. Moerner, Victor Y. Lee, R. J. Twieg, and G. C. Bjorklund

Appl. Phys. Lett. 57, 537 (1990); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.103640 (3 pages) | Cited 9 times

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We have demonstrated intracavity second‐harmonic generation of green 532 nm light in a quasi‐cw 1064 nm Nd:YAG laser using organic nonlinear optical crystals of 4‐(N,N‐dimethylamino)‐3‐acetamidonitrobenzene (DAN) immersed in index matching fluid contained in an antireflection‐coated cuvette. This technique permits crystals to be used directly from solution growth without polishing or antireflection coating them. Up to 0.56 mW peak power of 532 nm light was generated from 2.3 W of intracavity 1064 nm peak power in 100 μs pulses. We also report preliminary results on true cw intracavity harmonic generation with antireflection‐coated DAN crystals.
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42.65.Ky Frequency conversion; harmonic generation, including higher-order harmonic generation
42.60.Da Resonators, cavities, amplifiers, arrays, and rings
42.70.-a Optical materials

Reconfigurable optical interconnection using a two‐dimensional vertical to surface transmission electrophotonic device array

Ichiro Ogura, Yoshiharu Tashiro, Shigeru Kawai, Keiji Yamada, Mitsunori Sugimoto, Keiichi Kubota, and Kenichi Kasahara

Appl. Phys. Lett. 57, 540 (1990); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.103641 (3 pages) | Cited 11 times

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A dynamic reconfiguration of optical interconnections for enhanced flexibility in photonic switching systems is realized using a two‐dimensional vertical to surface transmission electrophotonic (VSTEP) device array. A matrix operational scheme for the VSTEP array is proposed and demonstrated. Through this operation, functions for light emission and for electrically programmable spatial light modulation are obtained in a single chip of the VSTEP array and a high‐speed electronic addressing of 1 ns per one line for the matrix is also confirmed.
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42.79.Ta Optical computers, logic elements, interconnects, switches; neural networks
42.65.Pc Optical bistability, multistability, and switching, including local field effects
85.60.Dw Photodiodes; phototransistors; photoresistors
42.79.Vb Optical storage systems, optical disks

Ferroelectric (Pb,Ba)Nb2O6 near the morphotropic phase boundary

G. Burns, F. H. Dacol, R. Guo, and A. S. Bhalla

Appl. Phys. Lett. 57, 543 (1990); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104246 (2 pages) | Cited 7 times

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Measurements of the optic index of refraction, along the c axis, are presented for three representative single crystals in the (PbxBa1−x) Nb2O6 ferroelectric system. In particular, we show that as the temperature is lowered, crystals at the morphotropic phase boundary (x=0.63±0.03) first develop a polarization along the c axis and then, at lower temperature, the polarization rotates to the ab plane.
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78.20.Ci Optical constants (including refractive index, complex dielectric constant, absorption, reflection and transmission coefficients, emissivity)
77.80.B- Phase transitions and Curie point
64.70.K- Solid-solid transitions
81.10.Aj Theory and models of crystal growth; physics and chemistry of crystal growth, crystal morphology, and orientation

Analytical technique for determining the polarization dependence of optical matrix elements in quantum wires with band‐coupling effects

Peter C. Sercel and Kerry J. Vahala

Appl. Phys. Lett. 57, 545 (1990); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.103642 (3 pages) | Cited 61 times

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We present an analytical technique for determining polarization‐dependent optical transition matrix elements in quantum wires which rigorously incorporates the effects of band coupling. Using this technique, we examine the polarization anisotropy of the two lowest energy optical transitions in a GaAs quantum wire. Contrary to assumptions employed in previous studies, we show that the valence states involved in these transitions are a strong admixture of light and heavy hole character. The lowest energy transition is found to be four times stronger for electric fields oriented parallel to the wire than for the perpendicular orientation. In contrast, the next highest transition does not interact with optical waves polarized along the wire axis. We discuss sources of error which arise in simpler one‐band models of this phenomenon in addition to the neglect of band coupling and show that the coupled band model presented here is essential for predicting these effects.
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42.50.Hz Strong-field excitation of optical transitions in quantum systems; multiphoton processes; dynamic Stark shift
71.15.-m Methods of electronic structure calculations
73.21.-b Electron states and collective excitations in multilayers, quantum wells, mesoscopic, and nanoscale systems
78.66.Fd III-V semiconductors
78.66.Hf II-VI semiconductors

InxGa1−xAs/GaAs multiple quantum well optical modulators for the 1.02–1.07 μm wavelength range

T. K. Woodward, Theodore Sizer, D. L. Sivco, and A. Y. Cho

Appl. Phys. Lett. 57, 548 (1990); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.103643 (3 pages) | Cited 43 times

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We report the operation of strained‐layer InxGa1−x As/GaAs 50‐ and 100‐period multiple quantum well optical modulators at wavelengths ranging from 1.02 to 1.07 μm. Structures were grown on GaAs substrates, as well as on strain relief InxGa1−xAs buffer layers. Devices show favorable electrical characteristics and absorption contrasts up to 57% at the exciton peak. Optical modulation of a Nd:YAG laser is demonstrated, via operation of self‐electro‐optic effect devices at 1.064 μm.
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42.79.Hp Optical processors, correlators, and modulators
78.66.Fd III-V semiconductors
78.66.Hf II-VI semiconductors
81.15.Hi Molecular, atomic, ion, and chemical beam epitaxy
73.61.Ey III-V semiconductors

Two quantitative optical detection techniques for photoacoustic Lamb waves

L. Noui and R. J. Dewhurst

Appl. Phys. Lett. 57, 551 (1990); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104103 (3 pages) | Cited 13 times

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The cross calibration of two optical detection techniques is described for the monitoring of laser‐generated Lamb waves. Measurements of Lamb waves using an optical beam deflection technique are compared with those using a Michelson interferometer technique. Analysis shows that phase changes in acoustic waveforms relate to the physical characteristics of the two detection schemes. Results are self‐consistent, and show that the beam deflection technique is capable of providing quantitative waveform analysis.
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43.35.Yb Ultrasonic instrumentation and measurement techniques
43.38.Zp Acoustooptic and photoacoustic transducers
82.80.Yc Rutherford backscattering (RBS), and other methods of chemical analysis

Grain growth kinetics during ion beam irradiation of chemical vapor deposited amorphous silicon

C. Spinella, S. Lombardo, and S. U. Campisano

Appl. Phys. Lett. 57, 554 (1990); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.103644 (3 pages) | Cited 11 times

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The amorphous to polycrystal transition during Kr ion beam irradiation of chemical vapor deposited silicon layers has been studied in the temperature range 320–480 °C. At each irradiation temperature the average grain diameter increases linearly with the Kr dose, while the grain density remains constant within the experimental accuracy. The growth rate follows a complex behavior which can be described by dynamic defect generation and annihilation. The absolute value of the grain growth rate is equal to that of the ion‐assisted epitaxial layer by layer crystallization in the silicon (111) orientation. This result can be related to the crystal grain structure and morphology.
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81.10.Jt Growth from solid phases (including multiphase diffusion and recrystallization)
61.72.U- Doping and impurity implantation
61.80.Jh Ion radiation effects
81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)

Optical and structural characterization of evaporated zirconia films

M. Ghanashyam Krishna, K. Narasimha Rao, and S. Mohan

Appl. Phys. Lett. 57, 557 (1990); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.103645 (3 pages) | Cited 20 times

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Thin films of zirconia have been deposited using a reactive electron beam evaporation technique onto unheated alumina and fused silica substrates. The films were post annealed in the range 300–850 °C. The influence of post‐deposition conditions on the optical properties like refractive index and absorption and nonoptical properties like structure have been studied. The structural transitions were determined using infrared (IR) absorption and x‐ray diffraction. Preliminary results of studies on the correlation between x‐ray diffraction and IR absorption data for structural characterization are reported. It has been shown that the refractive index values change considerably with each structural transition, although the optical absorption does not seem to be very adversely affected by post‐deposition annealing. Post‐deposition annealing resulted in the formation of the cubic phase at 500 °C which transformed to the tetragonal phase at 700 °C and finally monoclinic phase at 800 °C. The above‐mentioned phases were only the major phases and post‐deposition annealing did not result in single‐phase material.
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68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
78.66.-w Optical properties of specific thin films
77.55.-g Dielectric thin films
42.79.Wc Optical coatings

Atomic‐scale roughness of GaAs/AlAs interfaces: A Raman scattering study of asymmetrical short‐period superlattices

Bernard Jusserand, Francis Mollot, Jean‐Marie Moison, and Guy Le Roux

Appl. Phys. Lett. 57, 560 (1990); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.103646 (3 pages) | Cited 47 times

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We present Raman spectra obtained from very short period (a few atomic layers) GaAs/AlAs superlattices with asymmetrical unit cells containing two different GaAs wells. This allows us to analyze quantitatively for the first time the atomic‐scale component of the interface roughness. We demonstrate that it mainly originates at the GaAs on AlAs interface and strongly decreases with the growth temperature and the underlying AlAs layer thickness.
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68.65.-k Low-dimensional, mesoscopic, nanoscale and other related systems: structure and nonelectronic properties
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
68.35.Fx Diffusion; interface formation
78.30.Fs III-V and II-VI semiconductors

Epitaxial growth of diamond thin films on cubic boron nitride {111} surfaces by dc plasma chemical vapor deposition

S. Koizumi, T. Murakami, T. Inuzuka, and K. Suzuki

Appl. Phys. Lett. 57, 563 (1990); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.103647 (3 pages) | Cited 124 times

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Diamond thin films have been grown epitaxially on high‐pressure synthesized cubic boron nitride (c‐BN) particles by using dc plasma chemical vapor deposition. At the early growth stage of the film on c‐BN{111} surfaces, the island structure is observed and the number density of islands is about 1011 cm−2. The growth and the coalescence of islands are also found by scanning electron microscopy observation. The continuous film is obtained at the thickness of about 2000 Å and the surface of the film is rather smooth. The Raman peak of the epitaxial diamond film shows the shift toward the lower wave number due to the tensile stress involved in the film.
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81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)
81.15.Kk Vapor phase epitaxy; growth from vapor phase
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology

Observation of electron velocity overshoot in AlxGa1−xAs/GaAs heterostructure insulated‐gate field‐effect transistors

C. C. Sun, J. M. Xu, A. Hagley, R. Surridge, and A. SpringThorpe

Appl. Phys. Lett. 57, 566 (1990); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.103622 (3 pages) | Cited 2 times

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The factor γ=1+(RS+RD)/Rds is suggested to modify the expression of effective electron velocity in field‐effect transistors (FETs), where RS and RD are the source and drain resistances, respectively, and Rds is the intrinsic drain‐to‐source resistance. Based on this modified expression ν′eff = 2πLfTγ, where L is the gate length and fT is the cut‐off frequency, velocity overshoots were observed clearly at room temperature in AlxGa1−xAs/GaAs heterostructure insulated‐gate FETs with both undoped and doped channels.
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85.30.Tv Field effect devices
72.80.Ey III-V and II-VI semiconductors

Effect of F co‐implant during annealing of Be‐implanted GaAs

P. E. Hallali, H. Baratte, F. Cardone, M. Norcott, F. Legoues, and D. K. Sadana

Appl. Phys. Lett. 57, 569 (1990); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.103623 (3 pages) | Cited 5 times

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F+ co‐implantation at different doses and energies was performed into GaAs already implanted with Be+ at high dose (1015 cm−2) and low energy (20 keV), in order to reduce the beryllium diffusion during post‐implant annealing. The redistribution behavior of Be and associated electrical effects were studied by secondary‐ion mass spectrometry, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), Hall effect measurements, and current‐voltage profiling. Be outdiffusion was reduced by co‐implantation of F; more than 80% of the implanted Be was retained during rapid thermal annealing up to 850 °C. The dose and energy of the F implant strongly influenced Be electrical activation efficiency. High activation, up to 48.5%, was obtained when F was co‐implanted at high dose (1015 cm−2) and low energy (10 keV). Hole profiles shown reduced electrical activation in the region where F and Be profiles overlapped and TEM studies indicated the formation of {111} coherent plates, possibly BeF2 precipitates, in the same region. The reduction of Be outdiffusion in F co‐implanted samples led to high activation after annealing, and was believed to be due to chemical interaction between Be and F.
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61.72.U- Doping and impurity implantation
66.30.J- Diffusion of impurities

Effect of thin Ge layer on the surface depletion in GaAs

D. S. L. Mui, A. Salvador, S. Strite, and H. Morkoç

Appl. Phys. Lett. 57, 572 (1990); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.103624 (3 pages) | Cited 5 times

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We have investigated thin GaAs layers capped with 20 Å Ge pertaining to the extent of the well known surface depletion layer in this semiconductor. Using the transmission line method, the effective surface potential of 0.78 V measured in the GaAs surface was reduced to 0.45 V by the epitaxially grown Ge cap layer. About 0.26 of the 0.45 V is due to the conduction‐band discontinuity at the Ge/GaAs heterointerface which leads to an actual surface potential of around 0.19 V. The same trend was also verified by photoreflectance and photoluminescence with variable excitation wavelengths. The results are encouraging for device applications despite the possibility that a considerable portion of the 20 Å Ge cap layer is oxidized.
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73.40.Lq Other semiconductor-to-semiconductor contacts, p-n junctions, and heterojunctions
73.61.Ey III-V semiconductors
73.20.At Surface states, band structure, electron density of states

Valley current density activation energy and effective longitudinal optical phonon energy in triple well asymmetric resonant tunneling diode

C. R. Bolognesi, R. S. Mand, and A. R. Boothroyd

Appl. Phys. Lett. 57, 575 (1990); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.103625 (3 pages) | Cited 2 times

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In this letter we report the Arrhenius‐type dependence of the valley current density on inverse temperature in a triple‐well asymmetric resonant tunneling diode. The activation energy is found to be equal to the effective phonon energy representing the AlAs and GaAs‐like mode of AlAs in the AlxGa1−xAs barrier layers of a triple well asymmetric resonant tunneling (RT) diode operating at temperatures as high as 350 K. The data presented here correlate the longitudinal optical phonons to the excess valley current found in AlxGa1−xAs/GaAs RT devices between 200 and 350 K and raise the possibility of phonon spectroscopy of high quality barrier layers via resonant tunneling transport experiments.
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85.30.Hi Surface barrier, boundary, and point contact devices
85.30.De Semiconductor-device characterization, design, and modeling
73.40.Gk Tunneling

Demonstration of the effects of interface strain on band offsets in lattice‐matched III‐V semiconductor superlattices

J. S. Nelson, S. R. Kurtz, L. R. Dawson, and J. A. Lott

Appl. Phys. Lett. 57, 578 (1990); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.103626 (3 pages) | Cited 18 times

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A first principles total energy self‐consistent pseudopotential calculation is used to predict the band offset in the lattice‐matched superlattice InAs/Al0.8Ga0.2As0.14Sb0.86. We find that inclusion of interface strain changes the character of the band offset from nominally type II to strongly type II. The predicted band offset at the minimum energy configuration is in excellent agreement with the value determined from infrared photoluminescence measurements.
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73.40.Kp III-V semiconductor-to-semiconductor contacts, p-n junctions, and heterojunctions
68.35.Fx Diffusion; interface formation
77.65.-j Piezoelectricity and electromechanical effects

Interface engineering with pseudormorphic interlayers: Ge metal‐insulator‐semiconductor structures

S. V. Hattangady, G. G. Fountain, R. A. Rudder, M. J. Mantini, D. J. Vitkavage, and R. J. Markunas

Appl. Phys. Lett. 57, 581 (1990); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104247 (3 pages) | Cited 6 times

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Significant improvements in gating of Ge surfaces are achieved with the use of thin, pseudomorphic Si interlayers. Metal‐insulator‐semiconductor structures with mid‐gap interface state densities of 5×1010 cm−2 eV−1 and showing no hysteresis have been realized on both n‐ and p‐type Ge. The key elements of this technology are: surface cleaning, deposition of a thin Si interlayer, and the deposition of the gate dielectric, SiO2, all of which are performed in situ and sequentially at 300 °C in a single chamber with the remote plasma technique. Ion scattering spectroscopy shows complete coverage of the Ge surface by the Si layer. X‐ray photoelectron spectroscopy shows the Si interlayer is about 18 Å thick. The Si interlayer prevents the interfacial oxidation of the underlying Ge.
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73.40.Qv Metal-insulator-semiconductor structures (including semiconductor-to-insulator)
85.30.Tv Field effect devices
82.65.+r Surface and interface chemistry; heterogeneous catalysis at surfaces
81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)

Indirect stimulated emission at room temperature

M. Rinker, H. Kalt, and K. Köhler

Appl. Phys. Lett. 57, 584 (1990); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.103605 (3 pages) | Cited 7 times

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Stimulated emission in indirect band‐gap AlxGa1−xAs is observed at room temperature. This indirect stimulated emission is based on alloy disorder induced no‐phonon band‐to‐band transitions. Picosecond luminescence spectroscopy as a function of alloy composition reveals a quadratic dependence of the threshold pump intensity on the energy separation of the renormalized direct and indirect conduction bands. These threshold intensities increase exponentially with lattice temperature. The temperature dependence of the threshold intensity is much weaker than in direct band‐gap AlxGa1−xAs.
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78.45.+h Stimulated emission
42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes

Sweeping photoreflectance spectroscopy of semiconductors

H. Shen and M. Dutta

Appl. Phys. Lett. 57, 587 (1990); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.103606 (3 pages) | Cited 18 times

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We report a new type of photoreflectance (PR) by means of sweeping the pump laser beam. The modulation is achieved by moving the position of the pump beam with respect to the probe beam. In the conventional photoreflectance (using a mechanical chopper) the problem is caused by photoluminescence (PL) produced by the pump light. This is particularly acute at low temperatures where the PL is large. In our novel sweeping photoreflectance (SPR) technique the pump intensity is constant. Hence the problem associated with the luminescence is eliminated. Therefore SPR spectra can be obtained at much lower temperatures than conventional PR. The signal to noise ratio in SPR is usually better than that in conventional PR. The sources of noise in both conventional and sweeping photoreflectance is also discussed.
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78.20.Jq Electro-optical effects
07.57.Ty Infrared spectrometers, auxiliary equipment, and techniques
07.60.Rd Visible and ultraviolet spectrometers
42.65.Ky Frequency conversion; harmonic generation, including higher-order harmonic generation

X‐ray photoemission and Raman scattering spectroscopic study of surface modifications of silicon induced by electron cyclotron resonance etching

A. S. Yapsir, G. S. Oehrlein, G. Fortuño‐Wiltshire, and J. C. Tsang

Appl. Phys. Lett. 57, 590 (1990); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.103607 (3 pages) | Cited 3 times

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Surface modifications of silicon induced by electron cyclotron resonance (ECR) etching with CF4 is studied using x‐ray photoemission spectroscopy and Raman scattering techniques. It is shown that a silicon sample etched by ECR exhibits a thinner surface residual layer compared to those exposed to reactive ion etching (RIE) or hybrid ECR/RIE. Evidence of plasma‐induced structural disorder in the silicon surface was only observed in the RIE‐etched sample.
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81.65.-b Surface treatments
61.80.Jh Ion radiation effects
85.40.Hp Lithography, masks and pattern transfer

Room‐temperature operation of an InGaAsP double‐heterostructure laser emitting at 1.55 μm on a Si substrate

Mitsuru Sugo, Hidefumi Mori, Masami Tachikawa, Yoshio Itoh, and Mitsuo Yamamoto

Appl. Phys. Lett. 57, 593 (1990); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.103608 (3 pages) | Cited 18 times

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The room‐temperature operations of an InGaAsP double‐heterostructure (DH) laser emitting at 1.55 μm on a Si substrate is reported. A pulsed threshold current as low as 46 mA has been measured for a ridge waveguide laser with a 4 μm strip width and a 200 μm cavity length. This successful laser operation is due to the high crystalline quality of the DH structure with full width at half maximum of x‐ray rocking curves as low as 110 arcsec grown on a Si substrate by the organometallic vapor phase epitaxy/vapor mixing epitaxy hybrid method. A correlation between the optical property of an InGaAsP DH and its crystalline quality is also discussed.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
81.15.Kk Vapor phase epitaxy; growth from vapor phase
85.60.Jb Light-emitting devices
42.60.Da Resonators, cavities, amplifiers, arrays, and rings

Anisotropic etching of n+ polycrystalline silicon with high selectivity using a chlorine and nitrogen plasma in an ultraclean electron cyclotron resonance etcher

Hiroaki Uetake, Takashi Matsuura, Tadahiro Ohmi, Junichi Murota, Koichi Fukuda, and Nobuo Mikoshiba

Appl. Phys. Lett. 57, 596 (1990); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.103609 (3 pages) | Cited 7 times

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Heavily phosphorus‐doped polycrystalline silicon films (n+ poly‐Si) were etched in a pure chlorine plasma using an ultraclean electron cyclotron resonance etcher. Compared against undoped polycrystalline etching, horizontal etch rates were too high to allow anisotropic etching of n+ poly‐Si. With the addition of more than about 10% N2, highly anisotropic etches of n+ poly‐Si can be obtained simultaneously with selectivities as high as 160 to SiO2 in a 4 mTorr plasma. These results are significant to lower submicron fabrication. X‐ray photoelectron spectroscopy studies show that Si—N bonds are formed on the n+ poly‐Si surface during etching and it is proposed that this layer protects the sidewall against Cl radicals in a N2/Cl2 plasma. The suppression of SiO2 etching by O2 addition to a N2/Cl2 plasma has also been demonstrated.
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81.05.Je Ceramics and refractories (including borides, carbides, hydrides, nitrides, oxides, and silicides)
81.65.-b Surface treatments
61.80.Jh Ion radiation effects
52.40.Hf Plasma-material interactions; boundary layer effects

Reduction reaction of native oxide at the initial stage of GeH4 chemical vapor deposition on (100) Si

Yasuo Takahasi, Hiromu Ishii, and Kiyohisa Fujinaga

Appl. Phys. Lett. 57, 599 (1990); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104248 (3 pages) | Cited 8 times

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The existence of offset time t0 for the Ge deposition is found at the initial stage of Ge epitaxial growth on the Si(100) surface. The t0 is measured for various GeH4 pressures and Si surface conditions. From this investigation, it was determined that the t0 corresponded to the period for the reduction reaction of surface native Si oxide. It was concluded that the two surface SixO molecules were reduced by one GeH4 molecule.
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81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)
81.10.Bk Growth from vapor
81.15.Kk Vapor phase epitaxy; growth from vapor phase
82.30.Hk Chemical exchanges (substitution, atom transfer, abstraction, disproportionation, and group exchange)

24% efficient silicon solar cells

A. Wang, J. Zhao, and M. A. Green

Appl. Phys. Lett. 57, 602 (1990); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.103610 (3 pages) | Cited 76 times

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Significant improvements in silicon solar cell performance are reported using an improved high‐efficiency silicon solar cell structure. This structure overcomes deficiencies in an earlier structure by locally diffusing boron into contact areas at the rear of the cells. Terrestrial energy conversion efficiencies up to 24% are reported for silicon cells for the first time. Air Mass 0 efficiencies lie in the 20–21% range, the first silicon cells to exceed 20% efficiency under space illumination.
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84.60.Jt Photoelectric conversion
85.60.Dw Photodiodes; phototransistors; photoresistors
72.40.+w Photoconduction and photovoltaic effects
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