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29 Apr 1991

Volume 58, Issue 17, pp. 1807-1922

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Prediction of optical losses in SiO2‐ and GeO2‐based glass hollow waveguides for the infrared

Nobuhiro Nagano, Mitsunori Saito, Mitsunobu Miyagi, Nobuyoshi Baba, and Naruhito Sawanobori

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 1807 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.105095 (3 pages) | Cited 3 times

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Complex refractive indices of a series of SiO2‐ and GeO2‐based glasses were measured to evaluate optical losses of hollow waveguides made of these glasses. Measured optical constants follow the well known dispersion formula and vary with the percentage of Si or Ge atoms to the whole cations. By using empirically defined relations between oscillation peaks and compositions, we can predict refractive indices and waveguide losses theoretically for the unknown SiO2‐ or GeO2‐based glasses.
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42.81.Dp Propagation, scattering, and losses; solitons
42.79.Gn Optical waveguides and couplers
78.20.Ci Optical constants (including refractive index, complex dielectric constant, absorption, reflection and transmission coefficients, emissivity)

Measurement of the temperature and the pumping uniformity inside a Nd:YAG rod by an interferometric method

Kwang Suk Kim, Hong Jin Kong, and Cheol Jung Kim

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 1810 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.105096 (3 pages) | Cited 1 time

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The thermal behavior of a Nd:YAG laser rod under flashlamp pumping has been investigated experimentally using a very simple interferometric technique. The degree of pumping uniformity and the heat generation rate inside the rod was evaluated for single pulse pumping. The temperature increase at the center of the rod under a high repetition rate pulsed operation was also measured, and this result is used to deduce the surface heat transfer coefficient.
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42.55.Rz Doped-insulator lasers and other solid state lasers
42.60.Da Resonators, cavities, amplifiers, arrays, and rings

Permanent photoinduced birefringence in a Ge‐doped fiber

François Ouellette, Daniel Gagnon, and Michel Poirier

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 1813 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.105097 (3 pages) | Cited 17 times

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We report the observation of permanent photoinduced birefringence in a Ge‐doped fiber exposed to cw mode locked at 532 nm. This effect is enhanced by increasing the Ge concentration in the core of the fiber, or by submitting it to a thermal hydrogen treatment. The photoinduced birefringence is however very weak, or nonexistent, with irradiation by 514 or 488 nm cw argon laser light.
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42.81.Gs Birefringence, polarization
42.70.Ce Glasses, quartz
81.40.Tv Optical and dielectric properties related to treatment conditions
78.20.Fm Birefringence

Extremely low threshold current strained InGaAs/AlGaAs lasers by molecular beam epitaxy

R. L. Williams, M. Dion, F. Chatenoud, and K. Dzurko

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 1816 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.105098 (3 pages) | Cited 46 times

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Using solid source molecular beam epitaxy we have grown strained layer InGaAs/AlGaAs graded index separate confinement heterostructure lasers operating at 1.01 μm. For broad‐area, uncoated Fabry–Perot devices with cavity lengths in excess of 3000 μm, the threshold current density is 56 A/cm2, a value which we believe to be the lowest ever reported for laser diodes in any materials system. The internal quantum efficiency for these lasers is 88%, while the materials losses are 1.8 cm−1.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.70.-a Optical materials
42.60.By Design of specific laser systems

Laser action of optically pumped atomic vanadium vapor

H. Ninomiya, M. Abe, and N. Takashima

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 1819 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.105242 (3 pages) | Cited 4 times

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Vanadium vapor is generated from a vanadium metal by irradiation of a pulsed YAG laser of 2.2 J energy, and the vanadium atoms are optically pumped by a XeCl laser of 7.3 mJ energy. Laser action has been observed on the vanadium 409.5 nm (4F07/2–4D5/2) transition. This laser pulse has a pulse width of 4 ns and peak power of 1.08 W, and the optical gain is 0.46/cm.
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42.55.Lt Gas lasers including excimer and metal-vapor lasers
52.50.Jm Plasma production and heating by laser beams (laser-foil, laser-cluster, etc.)

Enhanced carrier confinement effect by the multiquantum barrier in 660 nm GaInP/AlInP visible lasers

K. Kishino, A. Kikuchi, Y. Kaneko, and I. Nomura

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 1822 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.105099 (3 pages) | Cited 33 times

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Multiquantum barriers (MQBs) were introduced into 660 nm GaInP/AlInP lasers with superlattice confinement (SLC) layers, resulting in drastic improvements in lasing performance. Lowest threshold current densities (840 A/cm2) and highest room‐temperature values for T0 (167 K) ever reported for 660–680 nm range lasers with bulk active layers were achieved. High‐temperature characteristics of the threshold current densities were measured in order to investigate the enhanced carrier confinement effect of MQBs and to estimate the excess nonradiative recombination current component. From the temperature dependence on the excess current density, the activation energies E0 of nonradiative processes were estimated to be 0.45 eV for MQB‐SLC lasers, and 0.26 eV for conventional SLC lasers without MQB. The increase of E0 demonstrates the enhanced heterobarrier effect by MQBs.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.60.Da Resonators, cavities, amplifiers, arrays, and rings
78.45.+h Stimulated emission
73.50.Gr Charge carriers: generation, recombination, lifetime, trapping, mean free paths

Europium‐doped alkali halides as a selective ultraviolet dosimeter material in the actinic region

I. Aguirre de Carcer, G. Lifante, F. Cussó, F. Jaque, and T. Calderón

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 1825 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.105100 (2 pages) | Cited 27 times

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The NaCl:Eu2+ thermoluminescence characteristics after ultraviolet irradiation as well as solar exposure have been analyzed. The TL excitation spectra of this material is coincident with the actinic region and its sensibility limit is less than 0.2 μJ/cm2 for 240 nm wavelength irradation. A model for the thermoluminescence emission is provided.
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78.60.Kn Thermoluminescence
87.53.Bn Dosimetry/exposure assessment
78.30.Hv Other nonmetallic inorganics
78.40.Ha Other nonmetallic inorganics
78.55.Hx Other solid inorganic materials

Single‐mode very wide tunability in laterally coupled semiconductor lasers with electrically controlled reflectivities

Giora Griffel, Howard Z. Chen, Ilan Gravé, and Amnon Yariv

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 1827 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.105101 (3 pages) | Cited 2 times

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Tunable, single longitudinal mode spectrum of a novel monolithic, laterally coupled semiconductor stripe laser has been demonstrated. A tuning range of 14.2 nm, which is the widest observed so far in a monolithic device, has been achieved.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.60.Fc Modulation, tuning, and mode locking
42.60.Da Resonators, cavities, amplifiers, arrays, and rings

Coupling of interdigital transducer to ultrasonic Lamb waves

Yu Jin and Shrinivas G. Joshi

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 1830 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.105102 (3 pages) | Cited 4 times

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The coupling of an interdigital transducer to ultrasonic Lamb waves propagating in a piezoelectric plate has been calculated using Green’s function method. It is found that when the plate thickness is more than a few acoustic wavelengths, the lowest order symmetric (S0) and antisymmetric (A0) modes are almost equally generated. The slight difference in the velocities of these modes gives rise to the beating effect whereby wave energy transfers periodically between the upper and lower plate surfaces. Experimental measurements performed on a Y‐cut, Z‐propagating lithium niobate plate are found to be in good agreement with theoretical predictions. The coupling coefficients have also been calculated using the simpler definition K2 = 2(v0−vm)/v0, where v0 and vm are Lamb wave velocities on a free and metallized surface, respectively. It is found that this definition gives erroneous results if the ratio of plate thickness to acoustic wavelength is greater than 1.
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43.38.Ar Transducing principles, materials, and structures: general
43.35.Pt Surface waves in solids and liquids

Asymptotic treatment of the Elenbaas–Heller equation

H. K. Kuiken

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 1833 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.105103 (3 pages) | Cited 4 times

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When the maximum temperatures within a high‐pressure gas discharge arc are lower than the ionization temperature of the gas molecules by an order of magnitude, an asymptotic treatment of the temperature equation is possible. This is illustrated by means of the Elenbaas–Heller equation [e.g., M. F. Hoyaux, Arc Physics (Springer, Berlin, 1968), p. 36] for a nonradiating wall‐stabilized arc. The asymptotics lead to a closed‐form expression for the relationship between the arc current and the axis temperature. An expression for the heat loss per unit length is also given.
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02.30.Hq Ordinary differential equations
52.80.Mg Arcs; sparks; lightning; atmospheric electricity
52.65.-y Plasma simulation
03.50.De Classical electromagnetism, Maxwell equations

Unhydrogenated diamond‐like carbon films prepared by dc plasma chemical vapor deposition at room temperature

Sunil Kumar

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 1836 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.105073 (3 pages) | Cited 12 times

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Unhydrogenated diamond‐like carbon films were prepared at room temperature by a simple dc plasma chemical vapor deposition system with a low overall power consumption. A gaseous mixture of methane and argon (1:9) was used as a material gas with the intent of bombarding the growing film with Ar+ ions. The bombardment of the depositing species with Ar+ ions present in the plasma leads to (i) removal of hydrogen from the carbon atoms and (ii) a preferential resputtering of weakly bonded graphite precursors from the film surface giving rise to diamond‐like properties of the films. The progressive thermal annealing of the films induces graphitization, and promotes growth of the crystallites at higher anneal temperatures (≥500 °C)
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81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)
81.40.Ef Cold working, work hardening; annealing, post-deformation annealing, quenching, tempering recovery, and crystallization
78.30.Hv Other nonmetallic inorganics
81.15.Kk Vapor phase epitaxy; growth from vapor phase

Novel microscopy using stimulated light scattering by laser‐induced transient reflecting gratings on metallic surfaces

Akira Harata and Tsuguo Sawada

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 1839 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.105074 (3 pages) | Cited 5 times

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A novel microscopic method, based on the technique of laser‐induced transient reflecting gratings, is proposed to monitor ion implantation in silicon by noncontact and nondestructive ways. Some unique advantages of this technique, such as high sensitivity to ion dose and potential real time imaging capability, are demonstrated.
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07.60.Pb Conventional optical microscopes
61.72.uf Ge and Si
43.35.Pt Surface waves in solids and liquids

Model for dislocation locking by oxygen gettering in silicon crystals

Dimitris Maroudas and Robert A. Brown

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 1842 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.105241 (3 pages) | Cited 9 times

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Oxygen gettering to dislocations slows and stops dislocation motion caused by applied stress in silicon crystals. A model is presented that quantitatively describes the inhibition of dislocation motion by accounting for the drag caused by the oxygen atmosphere in the crystal around the dislocation and for oxygen aggregates inside the dislocation core. The oxygen distribution is computed by analysis of diffusion and stress‐assisted migration in the crystalline lattice. The predictions of the model agree quantitatively with the experimental data of Imai and Sumino. Hysteresis is predicted in the dependence of the dislocation velocity on applied stress and explains the difference in the unlocking and locking stresses for dislocation motion.
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61.72.Lk Linear defects: dislocations, disclinations
61.72.sd Impurity concentration
61.72.sh Impurity distribution
61.72.sm Impurity gradients
81.40.Jj Elasticity and anelasticity, stress-strain relations
62.20.D- Elasticity

Stress in metal lines under passivation; comparison of experiment with finite element calculations

Barbara Greenebaum, Anne I. Sauter, Paul A. Flinn, and William D. Nix

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 1845 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.105075 (3 pages) | Cited 71 times

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The elastic strain in Al‐0.5% Cu metal lines under silicon nitride passivation has been determined by x‐ray diffraction. The experimental stress tensor calculated from these strain values is in excellent agreement with the results of a finite element model calculation. The intrinsic stress in the dielectric plays no role in influencing the stress in the metal; only thermal stress effects are important.
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68.60.Bs Mechanical and acoustical properties
85.40.Ls Metallization, contacts, interconnects; device isolation
85.40.Qx Microcircuit quality, noise, performance, and failure analysis
77.55.-g Dielectric thin films

Ion‐induced formation of stable and metastable phases in the Y‐Si system

T. L. Alford, P. Børgesen, J. W. Mayer, and D. A. Lilienfeld

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 1848 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.105076 (3 pages) | Cited 5 times

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Bilayers of yttrium and amorphous silicon have been irradiated with 60 keV inert ions. Between liquid‐nitrogen temperature and 100 °C, ion mixing resulted in an amorphous alloy of Y and Si. For temperatures of 125–190 °C, we observed formation of the YSi phase. YSi is not formed during thermal anneals of bilayers. Ion mixing at higher temperatures (≥205 °C) results in the formation of the stable YSi1.7 phase. Such sequential silicide formation has not been observed for comparable rare‐earth silicides. The minimum temperatures for ion‐induced YSi1.7 formation agrees with the prediction by a simple model which correlates vacancy mobility to phase transformation. The YSi formation temperature is associated with the onset of radiation‐enhanced diffusion. This temperature does not correlate well with the prediction of the model, but agrees with a scaling based on the average cohesive energy.
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64.60.My Metastable phases
81.10.Aj Theory and models of crystal growth; physics and chemistry of crystal growth, crystal morphology, and orientation
81.40.Ef Cold working, work hardening; annealing, post-deformation annealing, quenching, tempering recovery, and crystallization
61.80.Jh Ion radiation effects

Amorphous phase formation in an as‐deposited platinum‐GaAs interface

Dae‐Hong Ko and Robert Sinclair

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 1851 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.105077 (3 pages) | Cited 8 times

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The presence of a thin amorphous intermixed layer at the platinum‐GaAs interface in as‐deposited Pt/GaAs and Si/Pt/GaAs samples has been investigated via high‐resolution electron microscopy, microdiffraction, and energy dispersive spectroscopy. The intermixed layer forms below the native oxide of the GaAs substrate and consists of three elements, platinum, gallium, and arsenic. We suggest that this layer forms during the deposition process of the platinum.
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68.35.Fx Diffusion; interface formation
68.35.Md Surface thermodynamics, surface energies

X‐ray analysis of GaAs layers on GaAs(001) and GaAs(111)B surfaces grown at low temperatures by molecular beam epitaxy

M. A. Capano, M. Y. Yen, K. G. Eyink, and T. W. Haas

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 1854 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.105078 (3 pages) | Cited 4 times

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We report on the simultaneous, molecular beam epitaxy growth of GaAs on GaAs(001) and GaAs(111)B substrates at low temperatures. The crystallinity of the low‐temperature GaAs layers was assessed using a double‐crystal x‐ray diffractometer and a wide‐angle diffractometer with a rotating specimen stage. Layers were grown at 200 and 250 °C to a thickness of 3 μm on both (001) and (111) orientated substrates and an additional 3 μm layer was grown on GaAs(111)B at 300 °C. Double‐crystal diffractometry confirmed the presence of a single crystalline layer, with a growth‐temperature‐dependent excess As concentration, on the (001) substrates. On the (111) substrates, only a polycrystalline layer was observed. A possible explanation for these observations based on growth surface roughening is presented.
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68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
81.15.Hi Molecular, atomic, ion, and chemical beam epitaxy
61.05.cf X-ray scattering (including small-angle scattering)
61.05.cj X-ray absorption spectroscopy: EXAFS, NEXAFS, XANES, etc.
68.35.B- Structure of clean surfaces (and surface reconstruction)

Structure of newly synthesized BC3 films

Kannan M. Krishnan

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 1857 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.105053 (3 pages) | Cited 25 times

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We have measured the electron energy‐loss spectrum (EELS) of BC3 at sub‐eV resolution. Important differences between the total density of states of BC3 at the threshold of the K edge, predicted by earlier ab initio calculations, have been observed. We conclude from our measurements that the atomic arrangement in these materials can be described as graphite sheets with B replacing every third C atom. We suggest that further understanding of the electronic structure of BC3 can be derived by comparing such EELS data with calculations of the local density of states of bulk BC3 and including interlayer interaction.
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71.20.Nr Semiconductor compounds
71.20.Ps Other inorganic compounds
73.61.Ng Insulators

Carbon‐hydrogen complex in GaP

B. Clerjaud, D. Côte, W‐S. Hahn, and W. Ulrici

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 1860 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.105054 (3 pages) | Cited 20 times

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The carbon‐hydrogen complex in GaP is evidenced by the observation of the 12C‐H, 13C‐H, and 12C‐D stretching local modes of vibration. Experiments performed with D2O enriched wet boric oxide encapsulant clearly shows that a source of hydrogen contamination during liquid‐encapsulation Czochralski growth is the water contained in the encapsulant.
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78.30.-j Infrared and Raman spectra
78.40.Fy Semiconductors
61.72.S- Impurities in crystals
61.72.Qq Microscopic defects (voids, inclusions, etc.)
63.20.Pw Localized modes

Observation of photoluminescence from InAs surface quantum wells grown on InP(100) by molecular beam epitaxy

Z. Sobiesierski, S. A. Clark, R. H. Williams, A. Tabata, T. Benyattou, G. Guillot, M. Gendry, G. Hollinger, and P. Viktorovitch

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 1863 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.105055 (3 pages) | Cited 15 times

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Photoluminescence (PL) measurements are presented for thin epitaxial layers of InAs, 2.5 Å<d <36 Å, grown on InP(100) by molecular beam epitaxy. The combination of efficient carrier capture and PL redshift with increasing InAs thickness clearly indicate the formation of InAs quantum wells on the InP surface. Data are also presented for InAs/InP structures capped with strained layers of either GaAs or In0.5 Al0.5 As. Since radiative recombination within the InAs layers can be distinguished from PL arising from both bulk and surface defects, this system allows us to monitor the quality of both the InAs/InP and InAs/air interfaces via their influence on the InAs quantum well luminescence.
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78.55.Cr III-V semiconductors
81.15.Hi Molecular, atomic, ion, and chemical beam epitaxy
78.66.Fd III-V semiconductors
78.66.Hf II-VI semiconductors

Metastable behavior of deep levels in hydrogenated GaAs

Hoon Young Cho, Eun Kyu Kim, Suk‐Ki Min, K. J. Chang, and Choochon Lee

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 1866 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.105056 (3 pages) | Cited 6 times

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New metastable behavior of deep levels is found in hydrogenated GaAs doped with Si. A deep level at 0.60 eV below the conduction‐band minimum (Ec) is generated during hydrogenation and shows metastable for the Ec − 0.42 eV trap. From the defect transformations observed in biased anneals, these defects are found to be metastable defects associated with hydrogen atoms. Especially, the 400 K biased‐anneal experiments indicate that an Ec−0.33 eV trap could be an electric field induced defect, transformed from other intrinsic defects. The Ec − 0.60 eV trap in hydrogenated GaAs could be a hydrogen complex associated with Ec − 0.42 eV trap and the hydrogen atom plays an important role in a metastability of deep level defects in GaAs.
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71.55.Eq III-V semiconductors
61.72.Bb Theories and models of crystal defects
72.80.Ey III-V and II-VI semiconductors
73.61.Ng Insulators

Prevention of In evaporation and preservation of smooth surface in thermal annealing and mass transport of InP

Z. L. Liau

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 1869 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.105057 (3 pages) | Cited 7 times

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Slow evaporation of In from InP wafers has been investigated and identified as a major cause of surface roughness in thermal annealing and mass transport under sufficient phosphorus vapor protection. An analysis shows that In evaporation can be prevented by covering the wafer during the annealing process. However, the commonly used graphite cover by itself is inadequate protection because In vapor is able to permeate the graphite. On the other hand, InP covers alone result in problems caused by the mass transport that occurs between the InP wafer and cover. A covering scheme has been developed that uses InP covers and a quartz enclosure in addition to the graphite cover. This arrangement provides effective wafer protection permitting smooth wafer surfaces to be obtained reproducibly.
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81.40.Ef Cold working, work hardening; annealing, post-deformation annealing, quenching, tempering recovery, and crystallization
81.10.Aj Theory and models of crystal growth; physics and chemistry of crystal growth, crystal morphology, and orientation
64.70.Hz Solid-vapor transitions
68.03.Fg Evaporation and condensation of liquids
68.43.Mn Adsorption kinetics

Enhanced impurity diffusion resulting from rapid thermal nitridation of thin SiO2

James Bustillo, Chi Chang, Sameer Haddad, and Arthur Wang

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 1872 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.105058 (3 pages) | Cited 4 times

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The materials‐related effects due to rapid thermal nitridation and reoxidation of thermally grown SiO2 were studied in the underlying silicon. Depth profiles using spreading resistance, auger electron spectroscopy, and secondary‐ion mass spectroscopy are presented to show that enhanced dopant diffusion and surface depletion result from rapid thermal process treatments. Silicon interstitial injection from the nitrogen supersaturated oxynitride interface facilitates the diffusion of boron, phosphorus, and arsenic atoms in the silicon substrate. An appreciable amount of nitrogen was found below the silicon surface, suggesting that nitrogen interstitials may play an important role in the observed enhanced impurity diffusion.
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68.35.Fx Diffusion; interface formation
68.55.Ln Defects and impurities: doping, implantation, distribution, concentration, etc.
61.72.sd Impurity concentration
61.72.sh Impurity distribution
61.72.sm Impurity gradients
61.72.jd Vacancies
61.72.jj Interstitials

Synthesis of high quality diamond films in a turbulent flame

Keith A. Snail and Cameron J. Craigie

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 1875 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.105059 (3 pages) | Cited 23 times

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High quality polycrystalline diamond films have been synthesized in a premixed, turbulent oxygen‐acetylene flame, using a commercial brazing torch. The quality of the films was measured by Raman spectroscopy, electron microscopy, and hemispherical transmittance measurements in the ultraviolet, visible, and infrared. Turbulence was achieved by operating the torch with a sufficiently high Reynolds number. The presence of turbulence was confirmed by observations of changes in the flame shape, the characteristic sound of the flame, and calculation of the Reynold’s number.
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81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)
81.10.Bk Growth from vapor
78.30.Jw Organic compounds, polymers

Room‐temperature photoconductivity of InGaAs/GaAs strained‐layer superlattices

A. Salokatve, M. Hovinen, and M. Pessa

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 1878 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.105060 (3 pages) | Cited 1 time

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InGaAs/GaAs strained‐layer superlattices have been grown by molecular beam epitaxy and characterized with photoconductivity measurements. The layers were doped p type by diffusion of Zn in an ohmic contact annealing process. A sudden reduction in room‐temperature photoconductivity of the p‐type samples was observed at photon energies slightly below the GaAs band gap in all of the samples. This spectral feature is proposed to originate from photoionization of acceptor‐like defect states in GaAs, and a model accounting for this phenomenon is discussed.
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73.50.Pz Photoconduction and photovoltaic effects
73.21.-b Electron states and collective excitations in multilayers, quantum wells, mesoscopic, and nanoscale systems
73.61.Ey III-V semiconductors
71.55.Eq III-V semiconductors
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