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14 Jan 1991

Volume 58, Issue 2, pp. 107-205

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Near resonance optical nonlinearities in nickel dithiolene complexes

C. S. Winter, C. A. S. Hill, and A. E. Underhill

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 107 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104969 (3 pages) | Cited 41 times

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The third‐order optical nonlinearity χ(3), linear absorption coefficient α, and the two‐photon absorption coefficient β of two nickel dithiolene complexes are reported. The nonlinearities were measured at 1064 nm using 100 ps pulses. Molecular nonlinearities 103 times those of carbon disulphide were observed. Two figures of merit were calculated from the data Δnsat/αλ=5 and n2/2βλ≳2, where α and β are the linear and two‐photon absorption coefficients and n2 the nonlinear refractive index. These figures are compatible with those required for simple all‐optical switching devices.
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42.65.Jx Beam trapping, self-focusing and defocusing; self-phase modulation
42.65.Pc Optical bistability, multistability, and switching, including local field effects
78.20.-e Optical properties of bulk materials and thin films
42.70.-a Optical materials

Monolithic integration of a resonant tunneling diode and a quantum well semiconductor laser

I. Gravé, S. C. Kan, G. Griffel, S. W. Wu, A. Sa’ar, and A. Yariv

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 110 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104970 (3 pages) | Cited 3 times

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A monolithic integration of a double barrier AlAs/GaAs resonant tunneling diode and a GaAs/AlGaAs quantum well laser is reported. Negative differential resistance and negative differential optical response are observed at room temperature. The device displays bistable electrical and optical characteristics which are voltage controlled. Operation as a two‐state optical memory is demonstrated.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.82.-m Integrated optics
42.65.Pc Optical bistability, multistability, and switching, including local field effects
73.40.Gk Tunneling

In‐phase operation of high‐power nonplanar periodic laser arrays

R. P. Bryan, T. M. Cockerill, L. M. Miller, T. K. Tang, T. A. DeTemple, and J. J. Coleman

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 113 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104971 (3 pages)

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The transformation of nonplanar periodic laser array modes from weakly locked out‐of‐phase to locked in‐phase operation is investigated. A comparison study of near‐field and far‐field patterns is made for devices with differing mesa widths and heights. Data are presented which show that the mesa height and width can be adjusted to force in‐phase operation. An array of 19 elements shows an essentially single‐lobed far‐field pattern centered at 0° with full width at half maximum of 1.6°, to output powers of more than 500 mW/uncoated facet.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.60.By Design of specific laser systems
42.60.Da Resonators, cavities, amplifiers, arrays, and rings
85.60.Jb Light-emitting devices

Epitaxial growth of InSb on sapphire by rf sputtering

T. Miyazaki, M. Mori, and S. Adachi

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 116 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104972 (3 pages) | Cited 5 times

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InSb films have been deposited directly by rf sputtering on sapphire substrates. X‐ray diffraction and scanning electron microscopy data are presented to show that the InSb layer on sapphire (0001) is epitaxial and grows with (111) parallel to the substrate surface. Optical absorption studies of the epitaxial film also reveal distinct spectral features which resemble these from bulk, single‐crystal InSb.
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81.15.Cd Deposition by sputtering
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
73.61.Ey III-V semiconductors

Formation of amorphous Fe‐B alloys by mechanical alloying

A. Calka and A. P. Radlinski

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 119 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104974 (3 pages) | Cited 14 times

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Using a novel ball mill with controlled ball movement we have produced for the first time amorphous Fe50B50 and Fe40B60 alloys and nanocrystalline Fe80B20 and Fe66B34 alloys by mechanical alloying. The structural evolution of elemental powder mixtures is studied following milling and subsequent thermal treatment. Upon heating both amorphous and nanostructural mechanically alloyed Fe‐B alloys transform into a mixture of equilibrium phases.
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81.05.Bx Metals, semimetals, and alloys
81.20.Ev Powder processing: powder metallurgy, compaction, sintering, mechanical alloying, and granulation
61.66.Dk Alloys
81.40.Rs Electrical and magnetic properties related to treatment conditions

Formation of cobalt silicide in Co+ implanted Si(111)

Yong‐Fen Hsieh, Robert Hull, Alice E. White, and Ken T. Short

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 122 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104947 (3 pages) | Cited 14 times

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The microstructural variation of CoSi2 buried layers formed by 100 keV Co+ implantation at 350 °C into Si (111) is systematically studied. The critical dose dc of Co+ implantation at 100 keV required to form a continuous CoSi2 buried layer after annealing is the same in both Si (111) and (001), ≊1.1×1017 cm−2, corresponding to a threshold peak concentration of 18.5 at. % Co. In addition, we observe continuous buried layers consisting of both A‐(fully aligned) and B‐(twinned) CoSi2 grains in the (111) samples implanted at doses ≊ dc. The relative fractions of A and B are found to vary with the implanted doses, current densities of the ion beam, and annealing conditions with the B fractions varying from 0% to 100%. Continuous A‐type layers are formed only in the samples implanted to doses ≥1.6×1017 cm−2.
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68.55.Ln Defects and impurities: doping, implantation, distribution, concentration, etc.
68.35.B- Structure of clean surfaces (and surface reconstruction)
61.72.uf Ge and Si
68.35.Dv Composition, segregation; defects and impurities

Polytypic phase formation in DyAl3 by rapid solidification

Yan Xu, Z. Altounian, and W. B. Muir

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 125 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104948 (3 pages)

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Amorphous ribbons of AlxDy100−x, 93≳x≳85, were obtained by melt spinning. During crystallization, in addition to Al, four different metastable crystalline phases of DyAl3 were observed. These phases are, in order of appearance, the high‐pressure face‐centered cubic phase, γ‐DyAl3 and three polytypic rhombohedral phases, β‐DyAl3, β′‐DyAl3, and α′‐DyAl3. It is the first time that the β′ phase in rare‐earth trialuminides and the α′ phase in Dy‐Al alloy system have been observed. It is shown that all these phases are associated with the polytypic packing of the hexagonal DyAl3 atomic layers. The relative stability of the phases is found to be related to the hexagonal to cubic stacking ratio in the structure.
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81.30.Bx Phase diagrams of metals, alloys, and oxides
64.70.D- Solid-liquid transitions
81.05.Kf Glasses (including metallic glasses)
81.65.-b Surface treatments

Selective growth of GaAs by organometallic vapor phase epitaxy at atmospheric pressure

R. Azoulay and L. Dugrand

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 128 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104949 (3 pages) | Cited 6 times

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Complete selective epitaxy of GaAs by organometallic vapor phase epitaxy at atmospheric pressure was achieved by using TMG, AsH3, and AsCl3 as starting gases. Selectivity was observed at growth temperatures ranging from 650 to 750 °C. The blocking of polycrystal deposition on the mask, Si3N4, or W, is attributed to the adsorption of HCl on the mask, thus preventing the nucleation of GaAs. On the openings, the growth rate may be adjusted by controlling the TMG/AsCl3 ratio. When TMG/AsCl3<1, no growth occurs, but etching is observed.          
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81.15.Kk Vapor phase epitaxy; growth from vapor phase
81.65.-b Surface treatments
82.60.Nh Thermodynamics of nucleation

Quenched‐in defect removal through silicide formation by rapid thermal processing

Daniel Mathiot

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 131 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104950 (3 pages) | Cited 7 times

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We report on a detailed study of the influence of TiSi2 silicidation on the formation of the quenched‐in defects usually created by rapid thermal processing (RTP). It is shown that TiSi2 growth during RTP leads to a total removal of the defects, whereas the presence of TiSi2 by itself (without growth) has no influence. It is concluded that the defect removal is caused by the strong vacancy injection induced by the silicide growth.
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61.72.Bb Theories and models of crystal defects
71.55.Ht Other nonmetals
61.72.Yx Interaction between different crystal defects; gettering effect
61.72.jd Vacancies
61.72.jj Interstitials

Hydrogenation effect in an n‐channel metal‐oxide‐semiconductor field‐effect transistor

Choong Hun Lee, Choochon Lee, K. J. Chang, Sung Chul Kim, and Jin Jang

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 134 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104951 (3 pages) | Cited 1 time

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The effects of hydrogen plasma exposure on the characteristics of an n‐channel metal‐oxide‐semiconductor field‐effect transitor are studied. The helium plasma gives almost no changes in maximum transonductance and subthreshold slope whereas the hydrogen plasma degrades maximum transconductance and increases subthreshold slope. These results indicate that the excess interface traps are generated by hydrogenation, which is also confirmed by quasi‐static capacitance‐voltage analysis.
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73.40.Qv Metal-insulator-semiconductor structures (including semiconductor-to-insulator)
61.72.Bb Theories and models of crystal defects
81.40.Rs Electrical and magnetic properties related to treatment conditions
85.30.Tv Field effect devices

New application for isothermal capacitance transient spectroscopy: Identification of tunneling in semiconductor‐insulator interfaces

E. C. Paloura, J. Lagowski, and H. C. Gatos

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 137 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104952 (3 pages) | Cited 2 times

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The GaAs‐insulator interface is characterized by deep level transient spectroscopy (DLTS) and isothermal capacitance transient spectroscopy (ICTS). It is demonstrated that while DLTS can only detect transients with temperature‐dependent emission rates, ICTS can detect temperature‐independent phenomena as well. The GaAs‐insulator interface is characterized by two electron traps, with activation energies 0.67 and 0.23 eV, respectively, and a tunneling component that is detected only by ICTS. This tunneling component, which dominates the ICTS spectrum at 80 K<T< 180 K and is characterized by a field‐induced barrier reduction given by ΔEE=1.4×10−3q√E, is attributed to pure tunneling.
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73.40.Gk Tunneling
73.40.Qv Metal-insulator-semiconductor structures (including semiconductor-to-insulator)
73.40.Kp III-V semiconductor-to-semiconductor contacts, p-n junctions, and heterojunctions
73.61.Ng Insulators

Towards optimization and understanding of the photoelectronic properties in CuGaSe2

I. Balberg, D. Albin, and R. Noufi

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 140 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104953 (3 pages) | Cited 4 times

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The photoconductivity and the minority‐carrier diffusion length of CuGaSe2 were studied in the photocarrier grating configuration. In order to shed some light on the carrier recombination processes, both He‐Ne and Ar‐laser illuminations were used and the light was applied either to the substrate surface or to the free surface of the films. The substantial variation of the photoelectronic properties along the film growth axis, and their dependence on the light wavelength, are interpreted in terms of the polycrystalline nature of the films. It is suggested that by properly combining deposition conditions and composition one can get a significant improvement in the phototransport properties of these materials.
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73.50.Pz Photoconduction and photovoltaic effects
73.61.Ga II-VI semiconductors
72.20.Jv Charge carriers: generation, recombination, lifetime, and trapping

Effect of spatial localization of dopant atoms on the spacing of electron subbands in δ‐doped GaAs:Si

J. Wagner, M. Ramsteiner, D. Richards, G. Fasol, and K. Ploog

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 143 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104954 (3 pages) | Cited 17 times

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Using Raman spectroscopy we have investigated the spacing of the electron subbands in nominally δ‐doped GaAs structures which show a considerable spread of the silicon dopant atoms along the growth direction. For optical excitation in resonance with the E0+Δ0band gap, spin‐density intersubband excitations are observed. For excitation in resonance with the E1 band gap we find a strong enhancement of scattering by collective intersubband plasmon‐phonon modes. The measured energy spacings between the electron subbands deviate significantly from what is expected for ideal δ doping. Self‐consistent electronic subband calculations taking into account the spread of the dopant atoms along the growth direction, in contrast, yield a good quantitative agreement between calculated and measured subband spacings. This demonstrates the potential of intersubband Raman spectroscopy for the analysis of the spatial localization of dopant atoms in δ‐doped structures.
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78.30.Fs III-V and II-VI semiconductors
78.66.Fd III-V semiconductors
78.66.Hf II-VI semiconductors
73.61.Ey III-V semiconductors
68.55.Ln Defects and impurities: doping, implantation, distribution, concentration, etc.

Direct measurement of transient macroscopic volume change induced by generation of electron‐hole pairs in GaP and GaAs

Toshinobu Sugiyama, Katsumi Tanimura, and Noriaki Itoh

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 146 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104955 (3 pages) | Cited 1 time

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We have carried out a direct measurement of the macroscopic volume change of GaP and GaAs induced by irradiation with an electron pulse by means of the photoelastic technique. We find that metastable states lasting over 1 ms in both GaAs and GaP are formed and that their yield increases as the temperature increases.
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61.72.Bb Theories and models of crystal defects
78.30.-j Infrared and Raman spectra
78.40.Fy Semiconductors
61.80.Fe Electron and positron radiation effects
61.72.U- Doping and impurity implantation

pnp lateral magnetotransistor and influence of n+‐buried layer on sensitivity

Ljubisa Ristic, Kazusuke Maenaka, Tom Smy, Tetsuro Nakamura, and My The Doan

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 149 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104956 (3 pages) | Cited 1 time

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An analysis of the sensitivity of a pnp lateral magnetotransistor (LMT) fabricated in bipolar technology is presented. In addition, the role of the n+‐buried layer is studied. The devices were designed as differential LMTs. It has been found that the change in sensitivity of pnp LMT increases by one order of magnitude if the n+‐buried layer is not omitted. The obtained sensitivity is the highest ever reported for a pnp LMT.
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85.30.Pq Bipolar transistors
07.07.Df Sensors (chemical, optical, electrical, movement, gas, etc.); remote sensing
07.55.-w Magnetic instruments and components

A cantilever shadow mask technique for reduced area molecular beam epitaxial growth

E. A. Beam III, Y. C. Kao, and J. Y. Yang

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 152 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104957 (3 pages) | Cited 8 times

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A type of shadow mask growth technique (cantilever shadow masking) for reduced area molecular beam epitaxial growth has been developed and applied to the growth of GaAs and InxGa1−xAs on selective areas of Si and GaAs substrates, respectively. This technique eliminates detrimental sidewall growth interactions, results in precisely positioned growth areas, and can be more readily planarized than other reduced area growth structures. This technique is particularly useful for defect density reduction during latticed‐mismatched heteroepitaxy using reduced growth areas.
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81.15.Hi Molecular, atomic, ion, and chemical beam epitaxy
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
73.61.Ey III-V semiconductors

Admittance of Al/GaAs Schottky contacts under forward bias as a function of interface preparation conditions

P. Muret, D. Elguennouni, M. Missous, and E. H. Rhoderick

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 155 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104958 (3 pages) | Cited 9 times

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Admittance measurements have been made under forward bias on two types of Al/n‐GaAs contacts. The Al and n‐GaAs layers have been prepared by molecular beam epitaxy on an n+‐GaAs wafer. In the first type, which shows ideal current‐voltage characteristics, only an inductive effect was observed and no effect attributable to interface states was detected. In the second type, differing only in the n‐GaAs surface which was prepared under inferior vacuum conditions, nonideality of current‐voltage characteristics and excess capacitances were both seen. The back contact being the same in both types of samples, the onset of excess capacitances must be related to the change in surface characteristics. A model which assumes a U‐shaped density of extrinsic interface states accounts simultaneously for the behavior of conductance, capacitance, and ideality factor as functions of temperature, voltage, and frequency.
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73.30.+y Surface double layers, Schottky barriers, and work functions
73.40.Ns Metal-nonmetal contacts
71.55.Eq III-V semiconductors

Ultrafast gain dynamics in 1.5 μm multiple quantum well optical amplifiers

G. Eisenstein, J. M. Wiesenfeld, M. Wegener, G. Sucha, D. S. Chemla, S. Weiss, G. Raybon, and U. Koren

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 158 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.105237 (3 pages) | Cited 30 times

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Following gain saturation by a short pulse, the gain recovery process in multiple quantum well optical amplifiers includes contributions from carriers occupying states with energies above the depleted states within the well, from carriers stored in the barrier layers, which serve as carrier reservoirs, and from conventional Auger recombination. Gain recovery caused by carriers from the reservoirs is rapid (7 ps) and can be made to dominate the slower (Auger) recovery process.
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78.47.-p Spectroscopy of solid state dynamics
42.79.Sz Optical communication systems, multiplexers, and demultiplexers
72.20.Jv Charge carriers: generation, recombination, lifetime, and trapping
78.66.Fd III-V semiconductors
78.66.Hf II-VI semiconductors

Photoemission studies of silicon on the Ru(001) surface

Z. H. Lu, T. K. Sham, P. R. Norton, and K. H. Tan

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 161 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104959 (3 pages) | Cited 3 times

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Interactions of silicon atoms on a Ru(001) surface have been studied by synchrotron radiation photoemission spectroscopy and low‐energy electron diffraction. A stable RuxSi1−x phase with high chemical uniformity was obtained by post‐annealing the sample at 1370 °C. Upon interaction with silicon, the Ru d band was significantly narrowed (by about 1 eV), and shifted towards the Fermi level. The distributions of Si 3s,3p and Ru 4d in the occupied valence bands were clearly identified by using different photon energies. The chemical nature of Si‐Ru interaction is discussed.
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81.65.-b Surface treatments
73.20.At Surface states, band structure, electron density of states
73.30.+y Surface double layers, Schottky barriers, and work functions

Very high carbon incorporation in metalorganic vapor phase epitaxy of heavily doped p‐type GaAs

M. C. Hanna, Z. H. Lu, and A. Majerfeld

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 164 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104960 (3 pages) | Cited 73 times

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Very high C incorporation (≳1020 cm−3) in GaAs was achieved by atmospheric pressure metalorganic vapor phase epitaxy (AP‐MOVPE) using CCl4 as a dopant gas. Hole densities up to p=1.2×1020 cm−3 (at least three times higher than previously reported by MOVPE) were obtained at a growth temperature of 600 °C and a V/III ratio of 2.8. The highest atomic C concentration was 1.5×1020 cm−3. The hole mobilities were ∼50% larger than previously reported. CCl4 was found to suppress the formation of gallium droplets and whisker growth which normally occur under low‐temperature, low V/III ratio growth conditions, allowing the growth of thin (<1 μm) heavily doped layers with mirror‐like surface morphologies. Layers with p∼1×1020 cm−3 showed a lattice contraction with Δa/a=−9.3×10−4. Photoluminescence studies indicate a significant band‐gap shrinkage at high doping levels.
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81.15.Kk Vapor phase epitaxy; growth from vapor phase
68.55.Ln Defects and impurities: doping, implantation, distribution, concentration, etc.
81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)
73.20.Hb Impurity and defect levels; energy states of adsorbed species

Quantum capacitance of resonant tunneling diodes

Yuming Hu and Shawn Stapleton

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 167 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104961 (3 pages) | Cited 12 times

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We have developed a method for evaluating the capacitance created from charges stored in the quantum well. This capacitance is currently calculated by using the formula for a parallel‐plate capacitor. We have shown that the simple formula for a parallel‐plate capacitor is invalid for this estimation. Our method, which is based on the damped resonant tunneling model, predicts that the capacitance due to the charges stored in the well is about two to three orders of magnitude smaller than that previously estimated.
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85.30.De Semiconductor-device characterization, design, and modeling
85.30.Mn Junction breakdown and tunneling devices (including resonance tunneling devices)
73.40.Gk Tunneling

High quality Fe‐doped semi‐insulating InP epitaxial layers grown by low‐pressure organometallic vapor phase epitaxy using tertiarybutylphosphine

Rong‐Ting Huang, Ami Appelbaum, Daniel Renner, and Stanley W. Zehr

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 170 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104962 (3 pages) | Cited 3 times

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High quality Fe‐doped semi‐insulating InP epitaxial layers were grown by low‐pressure organometallic vapor phase epitaxy using tertiarybutylphosphine (TBP) and triethylindium (TEI) as the reactant sources. Semi‐insulating InP epitaxial layers with specular surface morphology and low defect density were obtained at TBP partial pressure higher than 0.38 Torr. Electrical measurements on these layers showed the resistivity of TBP‐grown materials to be comparable to that of PH3‐grown materials over a measurement temperature range of 25 to 110 °C. A premature reaction between TEI and TBP was observed upstream from the substrate in which things such as TEI:TBP adducts and/or polymers could have been formed. This reaction occurred under low pressure, high gas flow conditions which effectively suppressed analogous reactions for TEI:PH3. As a result, the growth rate of Fe‐doped semi‐insulating InP layers grown at low pressure with TBP in our reactor decreased by 35% as the V/III ratio was increased from 15 to 46.
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81.15.Kk Vapor phase epitaxy; growth from vapor phase
81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)
81.40.Rs Electrical and magnetic properties related to treatment conditions
85.30.De Semiconductor-device characterization, design, and modeling

Impulse compression using soliton effects in a monolithic GaAs circuit

Michael Case, Masayuki Kamegawa, Ruai Yu, M. J. W. Rodwell, and Jeff Franklin

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 173 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104963 (3 pages) | Cited 9 times

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A monolithic GaAs impulse compressor circuit which utilizes soliton wave propagation effects in nonlinear transmission lines has been fabricated. The circuits compress a 20 dBm, 8 GHz sinusoid to a train of 3.9 V peak to peak, 5.5 ps full width at half maximum impulses.
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85.30.De Semiconductor-device characterization, design, and modeling
85.30.Hi Surface barrier, boundary, and point contact devices
85.40.Bh Computer-aided design of microcircuits; layout and modeling
85.40.-e Microelectronics: LSI, VLSI, ULSI; integrated circuit fabrication technology

Effect of beryllia substitution and addition in a YBa2Cu3O7−δ compound

K. V. Paulose, J. Koshy, K. Ravindran Nair, and A. D. Damodaran

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 176 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104964 (3 pages) | Cited 2 times

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The effect of BeO substitution and addition in the superconducting properties of YBa2Cu3O7−δ superconductors has been investigated by temperature resistance measurements and x‐ray diffraction studies. The results revealed that the substitution or addition of BeO in YBa2Cu3O7−δ does not have much detrimental effect on the superconducting properties. Because of this nonpoisoning behavior, beryllia is suggested as a suitable substrate material for the production of superconducting thin films.
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74.25.Sv Critical currents
74.62.Bf Effects of material synthesis, crystal structure, and chemical composition
74.78.-w Superconducting films and low-dimensional structures
74.70.-b Superconducting materials other than cuprates

Lateral force on a magnet placed above a planar YBa2Cu3Ox superconductor

T. H. Johansen, Z. J. Yang, H. Bratsberg, G. Helgesen, and A. T. Skjeltorp

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 179 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104965 (3 pages) | Cited 12 times

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The lateral force interaction between a permanent bar magnet and a large slab of high Tc superconductor has been investigated at 77 K, under conditions of a constant vertical separation of 2 mm. The restoring force as a function of lateral displacement rises very steeply, and reaches 90% of its saturation value, 5.1 mN, after 1.8 mm. The profile of the force‐displacement curve is in qualitative agreement with the existing theory. A significant quantitative discrepancy is interpreted as due to a theoretical penetration depth exceeding the sample thickness. The lateral magnetic stiffness or spring constant, is found to be independent of displacement away from lateral equilibrium.
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07.07.Df Sensors (chemical, optical, electrical, movement, gas, etc.); remote sensing
74.25.Uv Vortex phases (includes vortex lattices, vortex liquids, and vortex glasses)
74.90.+n Other topics in superconductivity (restricted to new topics in section 74)
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