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24 Jun 1991

Volume 58, Issue 25, pp. 2871-2991

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Wavelength‐dependent amplification characteristics of femtosecond erbium‐doped optical fiber amplifiers

Kenji Kurokawa and Masataka Nakazawa

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 2871 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104758 (3 pages) | Cited 12 times

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Amplification characteristics of erbium‐doped optical fiber amplifier have been investigated using femtosecond soliton pulses with various wavelengths. Soliton trapping is not observed for 210 fs input pulses at 1.535 μm but the soliton self‐frequency shift occurs along with the pulse‐width narrowing. When the input pulse width is 470 fs, the soliton pulse is amplified by the optical gain at 1.535 μm, where the gain bandwidth is broader than the bandwidth of the input pulse. Amplification characteristics at other nonresonant wavelengths are also investigated using a femtosecond soliton pulse.
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42.50.Md Optical transient phenomena: quantum beats, photon echo, free-induction decay, dephasings and revivals, optical nutation, and self-induced transparency
42.65.Tg Optical solitons; nonlinear guided waves
42.65.Re Ultrafast processes; optical pulse generation and pulse compression
42.55.Rz Doped-insulator lasers and other solid state lasers
42.81.Gs Birefringence, polarization

Electro‐optic AlGaAs spatial light deflector/modulator based on a grating phased array

F. Vasey, F. K. Reinhart, R. Houdré, and J. M. Stauffer

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 2874 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104759 (3 pages) | Cited 1 time

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A novel beam steering device using gratings integrated on rib waveguides as input and output couplers is proposed. Phasing is achieved electro‐optically by applying an electric field on an indium‐tin‐oxide/AlGaAs Schottky junction. A two elements device is first used to characterize the phase modulation characteristics of the structure. A 43 elements device with sawtooth electrodes is then presented, that permits spatial three‐point digital beam steering or amplitude modulation. The outcoupled beams have an angular width of 1.8 mrad full width at half maximum. The switched beam angular separation is 9 mrad, the switching voltage is −21 V.
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42.79.Hp Optical processors, correlators, and modulators
42.79.Gn Optical waveguides and couplers
42.79.Dj Gratings
85.60.-q Optoelectronic devices

All optical, high contrast absorptive modulation in an asymmetric Fabry–Perot étalon

J. F. Heffernan, M. H. Moloney, J. Hegarty, J. S. Roberts, and M. Whitehead

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 2877 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104734 (3 pages) | Cited 25 times

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We report a 27:1 switching contrast ratio with 2.5 mW of power in an asymmetric Fabry–Perot étalon. The modulation is achieved by optical saturation of the excitonic absorption profile of a 95 Å GaAs/AlGaAs multiple quantum well structure grown on a high‐reflectivity dielectric stack mirror.
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42.65.Pc Optical bistability, multistability, and switching, including local field effects
42.79.Hp Optical processors, correlators, and modulators
42.79.Ta Optical computers, logic elements, interconnects, switches; neural networks
85.60.-q Optoelectronic devices

Double‐phase conjugated mirror and double color pumped oscillator in photorefractive InP:Fe

V. Vieux, P. Gravey, N. Wolffer, and G. Picoli

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 2880 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104735 (3 pages) | Cited 11 times

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We report on double‐phase conjugation at 1.06 μm wavelength in InP:Fe with applied continuous electric field. Conversion efficiencies up to 74% with a grating period of 9 μm are obtained. The dependence of this efficiency on intensity, applied field, and grating period is reported and the results are compared with numerical simulations taking into account space‐charge field nonlinearities. Double color (1.06 and 1.32 μm) pumped oscillation is also observed with conversion efficiencies higher than 30%.
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42.65.Jx Beam trapping, self-focusing and defocusing; self-phase modulation
42.70.-a Optical materials

Nanosecond scale optical pulse separations in double‐exposure holographic interferometry for investigation of transient events

Michael J. Ehrlich and James W. Wagner

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 2883 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104736 (3 pages) | Cited 4 times

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To investigate shock wave propagation in air, optical pulses with temporal separations ranging from 53 to 425 ns have been generated for use in double‐exposure pulsed holography using a White cell [J. U. White, J. Opt. Soc. Am. 32, 285 (1942)] as an optical delay element. A single optical pulse from a Q‐switched Nd:YAG laser was split using polarizing optics so that one pulse was guided directly to the experimental holographic recording setup; the other pulse was sent first into the White cell, emerging a set number of nanoseconds later. This delayed pulse then was used to record a second holographic exposure. Using the White cell construction, reproducible pulse separations between 53 and 425 ns could be generated. Shock wavefronts propagating at velocities greater than Mach 20 have been recorded using this method.
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07.60.Ly Interferometers
42.40.Kw Holographic interferometry; other holographic techniques
51.70.+f Optical and dielectric properties

Near‐diffraction‐limited angle‐switchable output beam from a broad‐area diode laser with an intracavity spatial phase controller

J. P. Hohimer, D. C. Craft, G. A. Vawter, and D. R. Myers

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 2886 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104737 (3 pages) | Cited 4 times

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The production of a near‐diffraction‐limited single‐lobed angle‐switchable output beam from a broad‐area diode laser with an intracavity spatial phase controller is demonstrated. This 100‐μm‐wide broad‐area laser produces a 0.8° full width at half maximum output beam at single‐facet pulsed powers of ≳300 mW. The spatial phase controller operates in two distinct modes (thermal and gain), providing beam scanning over 1.4° and beam switching of 8°. The phase controller also permits a dynamic study of the effect of wavefront tilt on device coupling and phasing.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.60.Fc Modulation, tuning, and mode locking
42.60.By Design of specific laser systems
42.55.Rz Doped-insulator lasers and other solid state lasers

Low‐power, all‐optical nonlinear absorption in asymmetric double quantum wells

P. Dawson, I. Galbraith, A. I. Kucharska, and C. T. Foxon

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 2889 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104738 (3 pages) | Cited 9 times

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We demonstrate all‐optical nonlinearities at low cw pump powers (50 W/cm2) using a novel heterostructure design which spatially separates photoexcited electron‐hole pairs. Theoretical calculations based on many‐body interactions are in good agreement with the measured spectra.
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73.21.-b Electron states and collective excitations in multilayers, quantum wells, mesoscopic, and nanoscale systems
78.66.Fd III-V semiconductors
78.66.Hf II-VI semiconductors

Enhancement of field‐induced optical absorption by potential modification of coupled quantum well structures

Y. C. Chan and K. Tada

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 2892 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104713 (3 pages) | Cited 2 times

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A novel structure, in which the potential profile of the coupled quantum well system is slightly inclined, is proposed for lowering the electric field required to transform the coupled system to a set of uncoupled single quantum wells. Numerical calculations of absorption spectra of graded coupled quantum wells under an electric field and room‐temperature photocurrent spectra of fabricated p‐i‐n diode samples confirm the above enhanced effect.
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78.66.Fd III-V semiconductors
78.66.Hf II-VI semiconductors
68.65.-k Low-dimensional, mesoscopic, nanoscale and other related systems: structure and nonelectronic properties
78.20.Jq Electro-optical effects

Etching polyimide films with continuous‐wave ultraviolet lasers

R. Srinivasan

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 2895 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104714 (3 pages) | Cited 18 times

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Continuous‐wave laser radiation from an argon‐ion laser in the wavelength range 300–330 <m1;&3.6>nm or 350–380 nm, when focused to a spot such that the power density is ∼10 kW/cm2, can be used to etch polyimide (DuPont KaptonTM) films with as little thermal damage as from an excimer laser (308 or 351 nm) provided the laser spot is moved over the surface at speeds at which the transit time over its own diameter is in the order of 1–1000 μs. There is an optimum speed at which the cutting action is a maximum for a given power density per unit area. The fluence (in J/cm2) at which etching occurs is comparable to results obtained with excimer laser pulses but the depth of the material that is removed per joule of incident laser is energy is ∼100‐fold less. In the present process there is no ablation and no acoustic report accompanies it. Only a fraction of the polyimide that is removed from the surface is seen as debris.
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81.05.Lg Polymers and plastics; rubber; synthetic and natural fibers; organometallic and organic materials
81.65.-b Surface treatments
61.80.Ba Ultraviolet, visible, and infrared radiation effects (including laser radiation)

Reactive ion etching of polycrystalline silicon using SiCl4

Y. S. Tang and C. D. W. Wilkinson

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 2898 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104715 (3 pages) | Cited 7 times

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Reactive ion etching of polycrystalline silicon using SiCl4 was used to etch 70‐nm‐wide structures. The etching mechanism of the process was investigated by using emission spectroscopy. It was found that the principal etchant for polycrystalline silicon is Cl+2.
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81.65.-b Surface treatments
52.25.Os Emission, absorption, and scattering of electromagnetic radiation
52.40.Hf Plasma-material interactions; boundary layer effects
52.70.Kz Optical (ultraviolet, visible, infrared) measurements

Evolution of spectrally discriminated spatial uniformity of line‐shaped plasmas

Xiao‐fang Wang, Zhi‐zhan Xu, Shi‐sheng Chen, Ai‐di Qian, Pin‐zhong Fan, Zheng‐quan Zhang, Li‐huang Lin, Xian‐ping Feng, Mei‐xia Gong, Bing Shan, and Sheng‐chen Gao

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 2901 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104716 (3 pages) | Cited 4 times

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A space‐resolved soft x‐ray (SXR) transmission grating spectrometer and a SXR streak camera are used to investigate the evolution of spectrally discriminated spatial uniformity of line‐shaped plasmas produced by uniform laser illumination in line focus. It is found that the spatial nonuniformity of SXR emissions and ion turbulence occur during optical laser’s heating. Various instabilities can be excited due to the long scale length in line‐shaped plasmas to produce the phenomenon.
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52.70.La X-ray and γ-ray measurements
52.38.-r Laser-plasma interactions
52.50.Jm Plasma production and heating by laser beams (laser-foil, laser-cluster, etc.)
07.85.-m X- and γ-ray instruments

Interface compound formation and dependence on In‐layer thickness in Ni/In thin‐film systems

R. Platzer, U. Wöhrmann, X. L. Ding, R. Fink, G. Krausch, B. Luckscheiter, J. Voigt, and G. Schatz

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 2904 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104717 (3 pages) | Cited 11 times

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Interdiffusion and interface compound formation has been observed at the system Ni/In by using thin‐film couples as well as thin In films on low index Ni single‐crystal substrates. The method applied was the perturbed γγ‐angular correlation technique, which is very sensitive to local structures and their changes around probe atoms. The successive occurrence of different Ni/In compounds could be observed on isochronal annealing above 230 K. A correlation between the appearance of compounds and In film thickness has been found.
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73.40.Jn Metal-to-metal contacts
68.35.Fx Diffusion; interface formation
76.80.+y Mössbauer effect; other γ-ray spectroscopy

Electrochirally controlled bistable surface switching in nematic liquid crystals

R. Barberi and G. Durand

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 2907 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104718 (3 pages) | Cited 43 times

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We present an electrically controlled bistable surface switching for nematic liquid crystals, in cells with the usual display geometry. The surface bistability is controlled by means of an electrochiral effect, by doping a nematic with chiral ions. The alternate transient commutation between the two surface states is related to the sign of an applied pulsed electric field. The threshold behavior allows a writing surface time of 32 μs for a field of 21 V/1.3 μm. In the birefringence mode, the optical texture response time is 0.3 ms. The effect, comparable with the one used with ferroelectric smectic liquid crystals, could be used to realize high definition video passive matrix displays.
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61.30.Gd Orientational order of liquid crystals; electric and magnetic field effects on order
78.20.Jq Electro-optical effects

Ferroelectric properties of lead‐zirconate‐titanate films prepared by laser ablation

Hideo Kidoh, Toshio Ogawa, Akiharu Morimoto, and Tatsuo Shimizu

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 2910 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104719 (3 pages) | Cited 46 times

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Ferroelectric lead‐zirconate‐titanate (PZT) thin films have been deposited by excimer laser ablation on sapphire substrates with and without an electrode. In preparation for the films, O2 gas pressure has greatly influenced the film structure and morphology. For the first time, we have confirmed the ferroelectric properties of PZT films prepared by laser ablation without post‐annealing. It appears to be possible to use these films for nonvolatile random access memories with some additional improvements in the film properties.
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77.55.-g Dielectric thin films
77.80.Dj Domain structure; hysteresis
81.15.Jj Ion and electron beam-assisted deposition; ion plating

Metallizations of AuGeNi/GaAs(001) and Au/GaAs(001) contacts at 4×10−3 Pa and 7×108 Pa pressure

Y. C. Zhao and Z. Q. Wu

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 2913 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104720 (3 pages) | Cited 1 time

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The metallizations of AuGeNi/GaAs(001) and Au/GaAs(001) contacts at 4×10−3 Pa and 7×108 Pa pressure have been analyzed by using x‐ray diffraction, transmission electron microscopy, and scanning electron microscopy. Our observations show that the high‐pressure ambient inhibits the As sublimation loss and that only interdiffusion takes place without any formation of compounds in those contacts annealed in argon at 7×108 Pa. The experimental results are also discussed on the basis of phase diagrams.
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68.35.Fx Diffusion; interface formation
73.40.Ns Metal-nonmetal contacts
62.50.-p High-pressure effects in solids and liquids

Impurity trapping and gettering in amorphous silicon

S. Coffa, J. M. Poate, D. C. Jacobson, and A. Polman

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 2916 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104721 (3 pages) | Cited 24 times

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Palladium atoms have been gettered from the bulk of an amorphous Si (a‐Si) layer to an ion‐implanted surface region. The 2.2‐μm‐thick a‐Si layers, formed by MeV Si implantation, were implanted with 500 keV Pd and then annealed at 500 °C. This produces a complete redistribution of Pd within the layer and relaxation or substantial defect annihilation in the a‐Si. Subsequently, defects were introduced into the surface region (∼4000 Å) by 200 keV Si implantation at various doses. After low‐temperature diffusion at 250 °C, Pd atoms are gettered in the Si‐implanted region. At low Si fluences, Pd decorates the Gaussian depth distribution of the ion‐induced damage, while at higher a saturation is reached in the gettering profile. The ion damage is calculated to saturate when 2% of the target Si atoms are displaced by atomic recoils. Below saturation, the displacement of two Si atoms is calculated to produce one Pd trapping site.
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61.43.Fs Glasses
61.43.-j Disordered solids
61.44.Br Quasicrystals
61.80.Jh Ion radiation effects
66.30.J- Diffusion of impurities
61.72.sd Impurity concentration
61.72.sh Impurity distribution
61.72.sm Impurity gradients

Stress in thick diamond films deposited on silicon

Nobuko S. Van Damme, Dennis C. Nagle, and Stephen R. Winzer

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 2919 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104722 (2 pages) | Cited 28 times

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20‐μm‐thick diamond films deposited on Si single‐crystal substrates by microwave plasma‐enhanced chemical vapor deposition showed significant curvature. The internal stress distribution was estimated using the model of an elastic bimetallic strip. The results indicate that the films are under a mean tensile stress of 1.1 GPa, and are discussed using information from x‐ray diffraction and Raman spectra.
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68.35.Gy Mechanical properties; surface strains
68.60.Bs Mechanical and acoustical properties

Kelvin probe force microscopy

M. Nonnenmacher, M. P. O’Boyle, and H. K. Wickramasinghe

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 2921 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.105227 (3 pages) | Cited 597 times

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Measurements of the contact potential difference between different materials have been performed for the first time using scanning force microscopy. The instrument has a high resolution for both the contact potential difference (better than 0.1 mV) and the lateral dimension (<50 nm) and allows the simultaneous imaging of topography and contact potential difference. Images of gold, platinum, and palladium surfaces, taken in air, show a large contrast in the contact potential difference and demonstrate the basic concept.
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73.40.Cg Contact resistance, contact potential
07.79.Cz Scanning tunneling microscopes
61.05.-a Techniques for structure determination

Temperature dependence of semiconductor band gaps

K. P. O’Donnell and X. Chen

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 2924 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104723 (3 pages) | Cited 156 times

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The application of a simple three‐parameter fit to the temperature dependence of semiconductor band gaps is justified on both practical and theoretical grounds. In all trials the fit is numerically better than that obtained using the widely quoted Varshni equation. The formula is shown to be compatible with reasonable assumptions about the influence of phonons on the band‐gap energy. Approximate analytical expressions are derived for the entropy and enthalpy of formation of electron‐hole pairs in semiconductors.
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71.20.Nr Semiconductor compounds
71.20.Ps Other inorganic compounds
78.20.Ci Optical constants (including refractive index, complex dielectric constant, absorption, reflection and transmission coefficients, emissivity)
63.20.K- Phonon interactions

Double solid phase epitaxy of germanium‐implanted silicon on sapphire

S. Peterström

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 2927 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104724 (3 pages) | Cited 1 time

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The crystalline quality of 0.3‐μm‐thick silicon on sapphire structures has been improved by double solid phase epitaxy of germanium‐implanted material. This regrowth technique increased the mobility with 70–100% in phosphorus‐ and boron‐doped films, respectively. The depth distribution of germanium induced donors was measured by capacitance‐voltage profiling on diodes made in preamorphized bulk silicon and the energy distribution in the band gap was investigated with deep level transient spectroscopy. It was shown that the main part of the germanium implantation induced defects could be removed by a high‐temperature annealing treatment.
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61.72.uf Ge and Si
81.15.Np Solid phase epitaxy; growth from solid phases
68.55.Ln Defects and impurities: doping, implantation, distribution, concentration, etc.
61.72.sd Impurity concentration
61.72.sh Impurity distribution
61.72.sm Impurity gradients

Luminescence intensity and lifetime dependences on temperature for Nd‐doped GaP and GaAs

Moriyuki Taniguchi, Hiroshi Nakagome, and Kenichiro Takahei

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 2930 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104725 (3 pages) | Cited 9 times

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We report the studies of luminescence intensity and lifetime dependences on temperature for Nd‐doped GaP and GaAs samples grown by metalorganic chemical vapor deposition. It is found that, with above band‐gap excitation, the temperature dependence of GaP:Nd reveals a two‐step decreasing behavior as the sample temperature increases. This phenomenon is due to the fact that there exist two kinds of Nd centers (type I and type II) in GaP. Although type I Nd centers produce strong luminescence at low temperatures, their intensities drop rapidly above 40 K. On the other hand, type II Nd centers show a near constant intensity up to 150 K and can still be observed up to room temperature. We also found, for a given Nd center, that the luminescence lifetime dependence on temperature is identical to the temperature quenching behavior of luminescence intensity. From the similarity between the quenching behaviors of Nd‐related luminescence intensities and lifetimes, we conclude that the temperature quenching of luminescence intensity of these Nd‐doped GaP and GaAs samples is mainly due to deexcitation rather than the reduction of excitation efficiency.
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78.55.Cr III-V semiconductors
78.47.-p Spectroscopy of solid state dynamics
73.50.Gr Charge carriers: generation, recombination, lifetime, trapping, mean free paths
73.61.Ey III-V semiconductors

Concentration of atomic hydrogen diffused into silicon in the temperature range 900–1300 °C

S. A. McQuaid, R. C. Newman, J. H. Tucker, E. C. Lightowlers, R. A. A. Kubiak, and M. Goulding

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 2933 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104726 (3 pages) | Cited 33 times

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Boron‐doped Czochralski silicon samples with [B]∼1017 cm−3 have been heated at various temperatures in the range 800–1300 °C in an atmosphere of hydrogen and then quenched. The concentration of [H‐B] pairs was measured by infrared localized vibrational mode spectroscopy. It was concluded that the solubility of atomic hydrogen is greater than [Hs] = 5.6 × 1018 exp( − 0.95 eV/kT)cm−3 at the temperatures investigated.
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61.72.uf Ge and Si
61.72.S- Impurities in crystals
63.20.Pw Localized modes
64.75.-g Phase equilibria

Minority electron lifetimes in heavily doped p‐type GaAs grown by molecular beam epitaxy

Hiroshi Ito, Tomofumi Furuta, and Tadao Ishibashi

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 2936 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104727 (3 pages) | Cited 10 times

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Minority electron lifetimes in molecular beam epitaxy grown Be‐doped p‐type GaAs are characterized systematically. Samples grown at temperatures from 550 to 700 °C have hole concentrations from 1017 to 1020 cm−3. Although electron lifetime in samples grown at temperatures higher than 650 °C remains nearly constant for each free‐carrier concentration, it decreases significantly at lower growth temperatures. These tendencies are observed in common for various hole concentrations. These results can be explained in terms of an increase in nonradiative recombination centers incorporated during growth.
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78.55.Cr III-V semiconductors
72.20.Jv Charge carriers: generation, recombination, lifetime, and trapping
81.15.Hi Molecular, atomic, ion, and chemical beam epitaxy
68.55.Ln Defects and impurities: doping, implantation, distribution, concentration, etc.

(311)A substrates suppression of Be transport during GaAs molecular beam epitaxy

Kazuhiro Mochizuki, Shigeo Goto, and Chuushiro Kusano

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 2939 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104728 (3 pages) | Cited 5 times

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The influence of substrate orientation on Be transport during GaAs molecular beam epitaxy is studied by secondary‐ion mass spectrometry. Substrates are misoriented from (100) toward (111)A, and the epitaxial growth is performed at 630 °C for Be doping at (5–7)×1019 cm−3. Surface segregation and anomalous diffusion similarly depend on substrate orientation. With (311)A orientation, the Be transport is dramatically reduced from its value with conventional (100) orientation. These results are qualitatively explained by considering the effect of atomic steps on the growing surface.
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66.30.J- Diffusion of impurities
81.15.Hi Molecular, atomic, ion, and chemical beam epitaxy
68.35.Fx Diffusion; interface formation

Sidewall damage in a silicon substrate caused by trench etching

Takeshi Hamamoto

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 2942 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104729 (3 pages) | Cited 3 times

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The sidewall damage in a silicon substrate caused by trench etching has been investigated using deep level transient spectroscopy. In order to detect surface and near‐surface modifications resulting from trench etching, a special device structure consisting of an n+/p junction array is used. It is found that three kinds of deep level are introduced onto the sidewall. The energy levels of these traps are Ec − 0.30 eV, Ev + 0.60 eV, and Ev + 0.66 eV, respectively. The deep level at Ev + 0.60 eV acts as a G‐R center. The reverse current characteristics of the same device have three modes with activation energies of 0.59, 0.64, and 0.13 eV, respectively. These modes also result from the sidewall damage. It is found that a transformation of the sidewall damage occurs at 1000 °C. The G‐R center and two of the reverse current modes disappear, but the damage is not completely annealed out because the others still remain.
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61.80.Jh Ion radiation effects
81.65.-b Surface treatments
85.40.Hp Lithography, masks and pattern transfer
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