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28 Jan 1991

Volume 58, Issue 4, pp. 319-431

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Very dense 102‐laser arrays with extremely low threshold current

Shoji Hirata, Hironobu Narui, and Yoshifumi Mori

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 319 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.105225 (3 pages) | Cited 6 times

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102‐laser arrays with a period of 4.5 μm were fabricated using single‐step metalorganic chemical vapor deposition and were operated uniformly with a threshold current of 1.8 mA per laser and a total output power of 850 mW/facet under continuous wave conditions at room temperature. The active layer of each laser, which was grown on a periodic‐ridge‐shaped GaAs substrate and was of a multi quantum well structure, was separated from the active layer of adjacent lasers by a current blocking layer, so each laser operated in a stable fundamental lateral mode.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.60.By Design of specific laser systems
42.60.Da Resonators, cavities, amplifiers, arrays, and rings
42.82.-m Integrated optics

Preferential excitation and enhanced emission of Pb atoms following detonation of lead azide

I. Bar, A. Cohen, D. Heflinger, Y. Tzuk, and S. Rosenwaks

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 322 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104674 (3 pages) | Cited 8 times

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Preferential excitation of the 3P°1 state of the lead atom and enhanced emission in the Pb(3P°1Pb(3P°1→1D2) transition at 722.9 nm have been observed following the detonation of lead azide, Pb(N3)2. The detonation is initiated by a short laser pulse and the products are expanded through a supersonic nozzle. It is suggested that the enhanced emission is due to preferential excitation of Pb(3P°1) via energy transfer from electronically excited N2 combined with the effect of self‐trapping of the emission from 3P°1 to the 3P0,1,2 states. The implications to short‐wavelength chemical lasers are discussed.
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42.55.Ks Chemical lasers
78.60.Ps Chemiluminescence

High‐speed 1.3 μm InGaAs/GaAs metal‐semiconductor‐metal photodetector

C. Jagannath, A. N. M. Masum Choudhury, A. Negri, B. Elman, and P. Haugsjaa

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 325 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104675 (3 pages) | Cited 1 time

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A high frequency, low dark current, 1.3 μm metal‐semiconductor‐metal photodetector on GaAs is reported. The measured frequency response of this photodetector up to 10 GHz agrees with a model that assumes different collection times for electrons and holes.
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85.60.Gz Photodetectors (including infrared and CCD detectors)
73.40.Sx Metal-semiconductor-metal structures

Many‐body effects on the linewidth enhancement factor in quantum well lasers

Weng W. Chow, Stephan W. Koch, Murray Sargent, and Claudia Ell

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 328 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104676 (3 pages) | Cited 11 times

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A many‐body theory that includes band‐gap renormalization, plasma screening, and interband Coulomb effects is used to calculate the linewidth enhancement factor α in quantum well lasers. We find significant variations in α with carrier density, suggesting that improvements in the laser linewidth and reduction in filamentation effects are possible for some laser configurations.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
78.66.Fd III-V semiconductors
78.66.Hf II-VI semiconductors

Phase‐shifted distributed feedback laser with linearly chirped grating for narrow linewidth and high‐power operation

Ping Zhou and G. S. Lee

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 331 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104677 (3 pages) | Cited 12 times

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Phase‐shifted distributed feedback laser with linearly chirped grating (PS‐CG‐DFB) was analyzed. The field distribution, threshold gain difference between the lasing mode and the next lowest threshold gain mode, linewidth of the lasing mode, and output power of PS‐CG‐DFB were self‐consistently calculated under different injection levels. It is found that the lasing mode pattern and the carrier concentration distribution are ‘‘locked’’ at high injection level due to the strong interaction between carriers and photons. The chirped grating compensates the spatial hole burning effect to the mode stability and makes the mode stable in the whole injection region.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.60.By Design of specific laser systems
42.60.Fc Modulation, tuning, and mode locking

Electroabsorption in II‐VI multiple quantum wells

A. Partovi, A. M. Glass, D. H. Olson, R. D. Feldman, R. F. Austin, D. Lee, A. M. Johnson, and D. A. B. Miller

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 334 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104678 (3 pages) | Cited 14 times

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We report the first study of the room‐temperature electroabsorption effects in CdZnTe/ZnTe multiple quantum well structures which exhibit sharp excitonic absorption peaks. The magnitude of the Franz Keldysh and quantum‐confined Stark Effects are found to be comparable to those of III‐V semiconductors. With optimized structures we expect II‐VI semiconductors to be important components for information processing in the visible spectrum.
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78.66.Fd III-V semiconductors
78.66.Hf II-VI semiconductors
78.20.Jq Electro-optical effects
85.60.-q Optoelectronic devices
42.79.Hp Optical processors, correlators, and modulators

Optically pumped Hg1−xZnxTe lasers grown by liquid phase epitaxy

A. Ravid, Z. Zussman, A. Sher, and Yoram Shapira

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 337 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104679 (3 pages) | Cited 2 times

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Optically pumped stimulated emission is reported for the first time from Hg1−xZnxTe (x≊0.23) epilayers grown by liquid phase epitaxy. Pulsed lasing was observed up to 70 K. Maximum single mirror peak power output of 23 and 2 mW was measured at 12 and 70 K, respectively. The laser emission spectra consisted of a strong line around 5.4 μm, and a weaker one, 6–7 meV below it, which were attributed to band‐to‐band and to band‐to‐acceptor transitions. Far‐field patterns with angular width of θ⊥=4° and θ∥≊2.5° have been observed perpendicular and parallel to the layer plane, respectively.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
78.66.Fd III-V semiconductors
78.66.Hf II-VI semiconductors

Photoconducting electro‐optic polymer films

Jay S. Schildkraut

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 340 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104680 (3 pages) | Cited 63 times

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We describe electro‐optic polymer films that also exhibit photoconductivity. An acrylic polymer containing (as a side chain) a stilbene chromophore with a high second‐order nonlinear susceptibility was doped with a perylene sensitizer for photocharge generation and a triarylamine hole transporting molecule. A polymer film was fabricated that had an electro‐optic coefficient of 2.5 pm/V. Absorption of light by the sensitizer, that occurs in a region in which the polymer is otherwise transparent, results in a photocurrent and charge trapping. The quantum efficiency of photocharge generation and photorefractive figures of merit were calculated.
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42.70.-a Optical materials
73.50.Pz Photoconduction and photovoltaic effects
78.20.Jq Electro-optical effects
78.66.Qn Polymers; organic compounds

Single‐mode molecular beam epitaxy grown PbEuSeTe/PbTe buried‐heterostructure diode lasers for CO2 high‐resolution spectroscopy

Z. Feit, D. Kostyk, R. J. Woods, and P. Mak

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 343 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104652 (3 pages) | Cited 39 times

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Buried‐heterostructure tunable PbEuSeTe/PbTe lasers were fabricated using a two‐stage molecular beam epitaxy growth procedure. Improvements in the processing technique yielded lasers that show performance characteristics significantly better than those reported previously. A continuous wave (cw) operating temperature of 203 K was realized, which is the highest cw operating temperature ever reported for lead‐chalcogenides diode lasers. This laser exhibited exceptionally low‐threshold currents of 1.4 mA at 90 K and 43 mA at 160 K with single‐mode operation for injection currents up to 30Ith and 0.18 mW power at 100 K. The usefulness of the laser, when operating cw at 200 K, was demonstrated by the ability to perform high‐resolution spectroscopy of a low‐pressure CO2 gas sample.
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52.38.-r Laser-plasma interactions
52.35.Mw Nonlinear phenomena: waves, wave propagation, and other interactions (including parametric effects, mode coupling, ponderomotive effects, etc.)
52.40.Db Electromagnetic (nonlaser) radiation interactions with plasma
42.65.Jx Beam trapping, self-focusing and defocusing; self-phase modulation

Elimination of laser prepulse by relativistic guiding in a plasma

P. Sprangle, A. Zigler, and E. Esarey

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 346 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104653 (3 pages) | Cited 25 times

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A method is proposed for eliminating prepulses associated with high‐power ultrashort laser pulses. In this method the high‐power portion of the pulse is refractively guided due to relativistic effects associated with the plasma electrons. The low‐power prepulse, however, is unaffected and diffracts away. Optical guiding is achieved by appropriately choosing the plasma density, laser power, and wavelength. In addition, a wavebreaking stabilization mechanism for the Raman backscattering instability for intense laser pulses is proposed, which indicates that the pulse should not be significantly backscattered by the plasma.
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52.38.-r Laser-plasma interactions
52.35.Mw Nonlinear phenomena: waves, wave propagation, and other interactions (including parametric effects, mode coupling, ponderomotive effects, etc.)
52.40.Db Electromagnetic (nonlaser) radiation interactions with plasma
42.65.Jx Beam trapping, self-focusing and defocusing; self-phase modulation

Reactions in Pd/GaAs(001) contacts at 7×108 Pa pressure

Y. C. Zhao and Z. Q. Wu

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 349 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104630 (3 pages) | Cited 4 times

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In this letter, we present the transmission electron microscopy and x‐ray diffraction studies of Pd/GaAs (001) contacts that were annealed in an argon ambient with a pressure of 7×108 Pa. Our observations show that this ambient inhibits not only the decomposition of As‐rich phases but the reactions accompanying the As sublimation for the Pd/GaAs (001) contacts and that the reactions are described as 4Pd+GaAs→Pd4GaAs (between 25 and 200 °C) and 3Pd+2GaAs→2PdGa+PdAs2 (between 350 and 800 °C).
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68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
62.50.-p High-pressure effects in solids and liquids

Nanosecond time‐resolved study of pulsed laser ablation in the monolayer regime

S. Herminghaus and P. Leiderer

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 352 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104631 (3 pages) | Cited 13 times

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Pulsed laser ablation of few angstroms or organic material is investigated on a nanosecond time scale for the first time. The use of optically excited surface plasmons as a probe provides high sensitivity with respect to the thickness of ablated material. The results show that for the films used in our investigation (isopropanol, acetone, and tetrafluoromethane), ablative photodecomposition is not relevant for the ablation process, although there is evidence for chemical transformations.
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61.80.Ba Ultraviolet, visible, and infrared radiation effects (including laser radiation)
82.50.Bc Processes caused by infrared radiation
82.50.Hp Processes caused by visible and UV light
82.65.+r Surface and interface chemistry; heterogeneous catalysis at surfaces

Optimal GaAs(100) substrate terminations for heteroepitaxy

H. H. Farrell, M. C. Tamargo, and J. L. de Miguel

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 355 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104632 (3 pages) | Cited 15 times

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The quality of heteroepitaxial growth of II‐VI materials on III‐V substrates, such as ZnSe on GaAs(100), depends strongly on the atomic structure and stoichiometry of the substrate. We define and describe those structures that optimize heteroepitaxial interface growth on GaAs(100) and related surfaces, and propose specific models for the c(6×4), ‘‘3×1’’, (4×6), an As‐lean version of the (2×4), and Se substitutional such as the (4×3). It is proposed that a good heteroepitaxial interface, with no extraneous fields and no charge imbalance, is achieved with substrate structures which lead directly to the appropriate interface stoichiometry.
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68.35.B- Structure of clean surfaces (and surface reconstruction)
81.15.-z Methods of deposition of films and coatings; film growth and epitaxy
68.35.Fx Diffusion; interface formation

Properties of diamond composite films grown on iron surfaces

T. P. Ong and R. P. H. Chang

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 358 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104633 (3 pages) | Cited 46 times

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We report for the first time that diamond composite films consisting of diamond particles, hydrogenated amorphous carbon, and/or fluorocarbon films can be successfully deposited on carbon steel and 304 stainless‐steel substrates by plasma‐assisted chemical vapor deposition. The use of thin (∼200 Å) silicon buffer layer proves to be effective in inhibiting surface catalytic effect of iron and also prevents carbon species from diffusing into the bulk. The composite films adhere well to the substrates even upon imposing a scratch load of 68 newtons. They can also be bent up to 10° and still remain chemically inert and impermeable to salt solution. One of the potential applications of these films is for protective coating on sheet metal surfaces.
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81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)
82.65.+r Surface and interface chemistry; heterogeneous catalysis at surfaces

Secondary electron emission spectroscopy: A sensitive and novel method for the characterization of the near‐surface region of diamond and diamond films

Alon Hoffman, Steven Prawer, and Mordechai Folman

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 361 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104634 (3 pages) | Cited 10 times

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Secondary electron emission (SEE) spectroscopy has been employed in the characterization of different carbon allotropes and distinctive signatures were observed for diamond, graphite, and amorphous carbon. Via an examination of the SEE spectrum of Ar+ (1 keV) irradiated diamond surfaces, this spectroscopy is shown to be very sensitive to crystalline perfection. It is also shown that SEE spectroscopy can be used as a very effective and sensitive tool for the characterization of the near‐surface region of diamond thin films.
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79.20.Hx Electron impact: secondary emission
68.35.Dv Composition, segregation; defects and impurities
73.20.At Surface states, band structure, electron density of states
61.80.Jh Ion radiation effects

Deep level transient spectroscopy based on conductance transients

N. Fourches

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 364 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104635 (3 pages) | Cited 3 times

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A new technique derived from the original deep level transient spectroscopy (DLTS) analysis is presented here. We show that for materials, which have a too low free‐carrier concentration and are therefore unsuitable for the capacitance transient method, it is nevertheless possible to construct a DLTS signal which enables the observation of deep traps in the space‐charge region of the sample studied. This method is based on the analysis of conductance transients. We demonstrate the usefulness of this technique when applied to the study of neutron‐induced traps in thick (1.5 cm) high‐purity germanium samples.
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71.55.Ht Other nonmetals
73.20.Hb Impurity and defect levels; energy states of adsorbed species

Electrical characterization of InxGa1−xAs/Al0.4Ga0.6As/GaAs pseudomorphic semiconductor/insulator/semiconductor heterostructures

P. Collot, E. Barbier, P. E. Schmidt, C. Arnodo, C. Gaonach, and J. Favre

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 367 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104636 (3 pages)

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Two pseudomorphic InxGa1−xAs/Al0.4Ga0.6As/GaAs semiconductor/insulator/ semiconductor heterostructures (PM‐SIS) with indium mole fractions x=0.15 and 0.25 were investigated and compared to a conventional GaAs/AlGaAs/GaAs SIS structure by means of current‐temperature and capacitance‐voltage characterizations. High reduction in gate leakage current is observed in the pseudomorphic structures compared with the conventional one. The conventional SISs is normally off, while the PM‐SISs are normally on with a sheet carrier density at 0 V of 1.8×1011 cm−2 and 2.2×1011 cm−2 with x=0.15 and 0.25, respectively.
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73.40.Kp III-V semiconductor-to-semiconductor contacts, p-n junctions, and heterojunctions
85.30.De Semiconductor-device characterization, design, and modeling

Interstitial oxygen determination near epitaxial silicon and Czochralski silicon interface

M. Geddo, B. Pivac, A. Borghesi, A. Stella, and M. Pedrotti

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 370 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104637 (3 pages) | Cited 3 times

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The oxygen content near epitaxial layer‐substrate silicon interface was investigated using a micro Fourier transform infrared technique. Systematic measurements, performed in a transversal wafer cross‐section configuration, clearly indicated the presence of interstitial oxygen in the epitaxial layer when it was grown on n‐type substrates, while no evidence of oxygen in it was obtained (in concentration detectable by the infrared technique) when grown on p‐type substrates. Interstitial oxygen profiles, near the epitaxial layer‐substrate interface, obtained by analyzing the optical data, are reported and discussed considering different combinations of dopants in the substrate and in the epilayer.
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78.30.-j Infrared and Raman spectra
78.40.Fy Semiconductors
66.30.J- Diffusion of impurities
68.35.Fx Diffusion; interface formation
61.72.jd Vacancies
61.72.jj Interstitials

Action of copper indium diselenide photoelectrochemical cells

J. W. Chu and D. Haneman

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 373 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104638 (3 pages)

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It is shown that long‐term operation of photoelectrochemical cells with CuInSe2 polycrystalline photoelectrodes in standard HI‐based electrolytes, can leave the surfaces clean and stoichiometric. Formation of a surface heterojunction is not necessary. The key factor is the ensurement of sufficient stirring of the electrolyte to prevent growth of CuI and other crystallites. Even when these occur, the underlying surface can remain stoichiometric and there is no iodine‐containing surface layer. The cells can therefore act as Schottky diodes and not as heterojunctions.
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73.40.Mr Semiconductor-electrolyte contacts
81.65.-b Surface treatments
73.30.+y Surface double layers, Schottky barriers, and work functions
68.70.+w Whiskers and dendrites (growth, structure, and nonelectronic properties)

Electron wave interference device with fractional layer superlattices

Kotaro Tsubaki, Takashi Honda, Hisao Saito, and Takashi Fukui

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 376 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104639 (3 pages) | Cited 8 times

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Modulation‐doped Al0.3Ga0.7As/GaAs heterostructure electron wave interference devices with fractional layer superlattices are fabricated. The periods of the fractional layer superlattice in the electron wave interference devices are 16, 12, and 8 nm, respectively. These devices show drain current oscillation due to electron wave interference at 4.2 K. The oscillation period is determined by the period of the fractional layer superlattice. From the analysis of the drain current oscillation, the peaks of the structure function agree with the multiples of the periods of the fractional layer superlattice.
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73.21.-b Electron states and collective excitations in multilayers, quantum wells, mesoscopic, and nanoscale systems
73.61.Ey III-V semiconductors
85.30.Tv Field effect devices

Low‐resistivity p‐type ZnSe through surface Fermi level engineering

J. M. Woodall, R. T. Hodgson, and R. L. Gunshor

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 379 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104640 (3 pages) | Cited 6 times

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Low‐resistivity p‐type ZnSe is difficult to make. This has been associated with the equilibrium thermodynamics of self‐compensation of the p‐type dopant by donor‐like Se vacancies. We suggest that the bulk Se vacancy concentration can be vastly reduced by positioning the surface Fermi level near the conduction‐band edge during the low‐temperature epitaxial growth of p‐doped ZnSe. This procedure is expected to minimize the equilibrium Se vacancy concentration at the surface, leading to a much lower than equilibrium Se vacancy concentration in the bulk. Experiments which could test this concept include liquid phase epitaxy growth of ZnSe from As or Li doped low work function melts such as Sn, and As doping during molecular beam epitaxy growth of ZnSe on (111)A surfaces.
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73.20.At Surface states, band structure, electron density of states
73.50.-h Electronic transport phenomena in thin films
81.15.-z Methods of deposition of films and coatings; film growth and epitaxy

Barrier height variation in Al/GaAs Schottky diodes with a thin silicon interfacial layer

J. C. Costa, F. Williamson, T. J. Miller, K. Beyzavi, M. I. Nathan, D. S. L. Mui, S. Strite, and H. Morkoç

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 382 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104641 (3 pages) | Cited 28 times

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Al/n‐GaAs and Al/Si/n‐GaAs structures with thin silicon interfacial layers were grown in situ by molecular beam epitaxy and their electrical characteristics were measured. Effective barrier heights between 0.30 and 1.04 eV were determined through I‐V and C‐V measurements in the Al/Si/n‐GaAs structures under varying conditions of deposition of the silicon layer, in contrast to a barrier height of 0.78 eV without the silicon layer. The conduction‐band offset between Si and GaAs is estimated to be of the order of 0.3±0.05 eV. The results indicate that the Fermi level at the interface of GaAs on Si in the Al/Si/n‐GaAs structure is unpinned from its midgap value.
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73.40.Sx Metal-semiconductor-metal structures
73.40.Cg Contact resistance, contact potential
73.40.Ns Metal-nonmetal contacts
85.30.Hi Surface barrier, boundary, and point contact devices

Passivation of n and p dopants in ion‐implanted GaAs by a 2D+ plasma

D. K. Sadana, J. P. de Souza, E. D. Marshall, H. Baratte, and F. Cardone

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 385 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104642 (3 pages) | Cited 3 times

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Strong n but weak p‐carrier passivation was observed when Si‐ and Mg‐implanted/annealed GaAs samples were exposed to a 2D plasma under identical conditions. Even though a discrete band of dislocation loops was present in both the samples, the 2D distribution in the two cases was remarkably different. In the Si‐implanted sample the 2D followed the carrier distribution, whereas in the Mg‐implanted sample it followed the distribution of dislocation loops. Phenomenological mechanisms of 2D interaction with dopants/dislocations in GaAs are postulated.
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61.72.U- Doping and impurity implantation
85.40.Ls Metallization, contacts, interconnects; device isolation
61.72.Ff Direct observation of dislocations and other defects (etch pits, decoration, electron microscopy, x-ray topography, etc.)

Fabrication of GaAs photodiode using laser selective area epitaxy

H. Liu, J. C. Roberts, J. Ramdani, S. M. Bedair, J. Farari, J. P. Vilcot, and D. Decoster

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 388 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104643 (3 pages) | Cited 9 times

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Laser‐assisted chemical vapor deposition offers a new approach for the integration of optoelectronic devices. We report for the first time the selective deposition and fabrication of a GaAs p‐i‐n photodetector. The detector, fabricated on a 200×200 μm mesa, shows an impulse response with a full width at half maximum of 150 ps and external quantum efficiency (no AR coating) of 60% both at 0 and −1.4 V bias. These results show that the p‐i‐n detector has a performance comparable to that achieved by metalorganic chemical vapor deposition and molecular beam epitaxy for similar device dimensions.
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85.60.Dw Photodiodes; phototransistors; photoresistors
81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)
81.15.Kk Vapor phase epitaxy; growth from vapor phase
85.60.Gz Photodetectors (including infrared and CCD detectors)

Effect of arsenic dimer species to silicon doping of GaAs layers prepared by molecular beam epitaxy

B. J. Wu, Y. J. Mii, M. Chen, and K. L. Wang

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 391 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104644 (3 pages)

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A strong dependence of Si doping on dimer arsenic (As2) flux and substrate temperature is observed for GaAs films grown by molecular beam epitaxy. Using an arsenic effusion cell with a cracker, Si doping levels are shown to depend on the cracking efficiency and substrate temperature. With the same Si cell temperature and GaAs growth conditions, the measured carrier concentration of the grown films decreases as the cracker temperature (cracker current) is increased and this dependence becomes stronger as the substrate temperature is increased. For samples grown at 660 °C, more than a factor of four decrease of the doping concentration is observed for the cracker current changing from 5 to 6.5 A. For those grown at 560 °C, there is only a weak dependence. Evidence is given to show that carbon contamination and Si self‐compensation are not the causes of this effect. The formation of volatile SixAsy compound at the substrate surface is proposed to account for this phenomenon.
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61.72.U- Doping and impurity implantation
61.72.sd Impurity concentration
61.72.sh Impurity distribution
61.72.sm Impurity gradients
81.15.Hi Molecular, atomic, ion, and chemical beam epitaxy
71.55.Eq III-V semiconductors
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