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25 Feb 1991

Volume 58, Issue 8, pp. 787-873

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Real‐time hologram construction and reconstruction using a high‐resolution spatial light modulator

Seiji Fukushima, Takashi Kurokawa, and Masayoshi Ohno

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 787 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104516 (3 pages) | Cited 25 times

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Real‐time construction and reconstruction of Fresnel holograms is demonstrated using an optically‐addressable ferroelectric liquid‐crystal spatial light modulator with a resolution up to 175 line pairs/mm. A bright holographic image is read out due to the optical separation between the write and read sides by a dielectric mirror.
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42.40.Kw Holographic interferometry; other holographic techniques
42.40.Ht Hologram recording and readout methods
42.79.Hp Optical processors, correlators, and modulators
42.79.Ls Scanners, image intensifiers, and image converters
42.79.Pw Imaging detectors and sensors

Transparent conductive metal‐oxide contacts in vertical‐injection top‐emitting quantum well lasers

Li‐Wei Tu, E. Fred Schubert, Hank M. O’Bryan, Yeong‐Her Wang, Bonnie E. Weir, George J. Zydzik, and Alfred Y. Cho

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 790 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104517 (3 pages) | Cited 10 times

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Optically transparent and electrically conductive cadmium tin oxide is employed in vertical cavity surface‐emitting lasers for vertical current injection. Continuous wave lasing at room temperature is achieved in GaAs/AlGaAs quantum well lasers. Devices with a 10 μm optical window, which also serves as a vertical current injection inlet, give lasing threshold currents as low as 3.8 mA. The differential series resistance is 350–450 Ω with a diode voltage of 5.1–5.6 V at lasing threshold. Far‐field pattern of the laser emission is Gaussian‐like with a full width at half maximum of 7°.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.60.Jf Beam characteristics: profile, intensity, and power; spatial pattern formation
78.66.Fd III-V semiconductors
78.66.Hf II-VI semiconductors
81.15.-z Methods of deposition of films and coatings; film growth and epitaxy

Fluence‐dependent transmission of polyimide at 248 nm under laser ablation conditions

G. H. Pettit and R. Sauerbrey

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 793 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104518 (3 pages) | Cited 25 times

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Transmission experiments on thin polyimide films under laser ablation conditions using 248 nm KrF laser radiation have been performed. The transmitted temporal pulse shapes and the transmittted intensity show fluence‐dependent absorption as predicted by a recent theoretical description of the pulsed ultraviolet laser ablation process.
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78.20.Ci Optical constants (including refractive index, complex dielectric constant, absorption, reflection and transmission coefficients, emissivity)
78.66.Qn Polymers; organic compounds
61.80.Ba Ultraviolet, visible, and infrared radiation effects (including laser radiation)

Chemical beam epitaxial selective growth of InP for laser fabrication

M. Gailhanou, C. Labourie, J. L. Liévin, A. Perales, M. Lambert, F. Poingt, and D. Sigogne

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 796 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104519 (3 pages) | Cited 3 times

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Chemical beam epitaxy (CBE) is demonstrated here to be a suitable technique for the planarization of etched structures by selective overgrowth of InP layers. We present the fabrication of planar buried heterostructure laser diodes (PBH‐LDs) with a separate confinement multiquantum well active layer grown by gas source molecular beam epitaxy and p‐n InP current blocking layers grown by CBE. These lasers have been operated cw showing threshold current as low as 17 mA and maximum power up to 25 mW. We also achieved for the first time the fabrication of PBH‐LD using molecular beam epitaxy techniques only.
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81.15.Hi Molecular, atomic, ion, and chemical beam epitaxy
85.40.Ls Metallization, contacts, interconnects; device isolation
42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes

Double‐heterostructure Pb1−x−yCdxSryS/PbS/Pb1−x−yCdxSryS lasers grown by molecular beam epitaxy

N. Koguchi and S. Takahashi

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 799 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104493 (2 pages) | Cited 5 times

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Pb1−x−yCdxSry S/PbS/Pb1−x−yCdxSryS double‐heterostructure lasers emitting at a midinfrared wavelength region were fabricated for the first time using molecular beam epitaxy. Effects of the lattice mismatches between active and confinement layers and also between substrate and confinement layers using a tilted substrate on the laser properties were investigated. The maximum pulsed operating temperature increases as the lattice mismatch decreased using a tilted substrate.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
81.15.Hi Molecular, atomic, ion, and chemical beam epitaxy
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
73.40.Lq Other semiconductor-to-semiconductor contacts, p-n junctions, and heterojunctions

Generation of blue‐green 10 fs pulses using an excimer pumped dye amplifier

R. W. Schoenlein, J.‐Y. Bigot, M. T. Portella, and C. V. Shank

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 801 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104494 (3 pages) | Cited 18 times

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We report the generation of <25 fs pulses in the blue‐green spectral region at 450 and 500 nm, using a colliding‐pulse‐mode‐locked laser combined with a two‐stage excimer pumped dye amplifier and continuum generation. The blue‐green pulses are compressed to 10 fs duration using an optical fiber with pairs of gratings and prisms for phase compensation.
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42.60.Da Resonators, cavities, amplifiers, arrays, and rings
42.65.Re Ultrafast processes; optical pulse generation and pulse compression
42.60.Fc Modulation, tuning, and mode locking
42.55.Mv Dye lasers

Two‐dimensional phase‐locked arrays of vertical‐cavity semiconductor lasers by mirror reflectivity modulation

M. Orenstein, E. Kapon, N. G. Stoffel, J. P. Harbison, L. T. Florez, and J. Wullert

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 804 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.105218 (3 pages) | Cited 52 times

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Coupling of two‐dimensional (2D) vertical‐cavity surface‐emitting lasers (VCSELs) to give a coherent supermode is described. The top metal layer of a stained‐layer InGaAs quantum well VCSEL structure was patterned laterally by depositing various metals with different optical reflectivities. This lateral reflectivity patterning defined a 2D laser array sharing the same ‘‘supercavity’’. It is shown that these 2D arrays oscillate in a stable single, coherent 2D supermode. This was achieved with a simple planar process and without significant deterioration of threshold current and efficiency relative to an equivalent broad‐area VCSEL.
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42.60.Fc Modulation, tuning, and mode locking
42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.60.Jf Beam characteristics: profile, intensity, and power; spatial pattern formation

High powers and subpicosecond pulses from an external‐cavity surface‐emitting InGaAs/InP multiple quantum well laser

W. B. Jiang, S. R. Friberg, H. Iwamura, and Y. Yamamoto

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 807 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104495 (3 pages) | Cited 9 times

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We demonstrate that surface‐emitting lasers operating in an external cavity can produce high average powers, high peak powers, and ultrashort pulses. By optical pumping of InGaAs/InP multiple quantum well samples in an external cavity, we generated 190 mW both in continuous and mode‐locked operation at 1.5 μm. Synchronous pumping at 100 MHz yielded 7.7 ps pulses with 15 mW average power. These were shortened to 1. 1 ps pulses with 64 W peak power by chirp compensation using diffraction gratings, and to 710 fs by negative group‐velocity dispersion in an optical fiber.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.65.Pc Optical bistability, multistability, and switching, including local field effects
42.55.Rz Doped-insulator lasers and other solid state lasers
42.60.Fc Modulation, tuning, and mode locking

Amplitude modulation mode locking of lasers by regenerative feedback

L. Turi and F. Krausz

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 810 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104496 (3 pages) | Cited 5 times

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We analyze the performance of regenerative feedback mode locking using intracavity amplitude modulation (AM). Regenerative feedback is predicted to improve the stability of AM mode locking especially at low and moderate repetition rates and short pulse durations. We report on AM regenerative‐feedback mode locking of a continuous wave Nd:glass laser. The generated train of 8 ps pulses has an excellent long‐term stability and is completely free of relaxation oscillation instabilities inherent in conventional AM mode locking.
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42.55.Ah General laser theory

Novel cavity design for high reflectivity changes in a normally off electroabsorption modulator

B. Pezeshki, D. Thomas, and J. S. Harris

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 813 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104497 (3 pages) | Cited 12 times

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We demonstrate both theoretically and experimentally a novel Fabry–Perot electroabsorption modulator. Both a normally off reflectivity characteristic and negative differential conductivity were obtained by increasing the optical absorption coefficient with voltage. Using the large absorption change of the quantum confined Stark effect, we obtain excellent modulation characteristics with a change in absolute reflectivity of 47% and a contrast ratio greater than 15.
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42.79.Hp Optical processors, correlators, and modulators
07.60.-j Optical instruments and equipment
42.79.-e Optical elements, devices, and systems
42.65.Pc Optical bistability, multistability, and switching, including local field effects
42.79.Ta Optical computers, logic elements, interconnects, switches; neural networks

Interferometric determination of the linewidth enhancement factor of a 1.55 μm GaInAsP optical amplifier

J. F. Ehrhart, A. Villeneuve, G. Assanto, G. I. Stegeman, B. Mersali, A. Accard, G. Gelly, and B. Fernier

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 816 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104498 (3 pages) | Cited 1 time

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We report on the measurement of the small signal gain and index variation of a GaInAsP semiconductor optical amplifier as a function of the injected current in the wavelength range 1.53–1.58 μm. Employing interferometry to evaluate the index changes, we have determined that the linewidth enhancement factor varies from 9 to 4 for photon energies ranging from below to above the band gap, respectively.
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07.60.-j Optical instruments and equipment
42.79.-e Optical elements, devices, and systems
42.60.Da Resonators, cavities, amplifiers, arrays, and rings
85.60.-q Optoelectronic devices

Spectroellipsometry characterization of optical quality vapor‐deposited diamond thin films

Yue Cong, R. W. Collins, Glenn F. Epps, and H. Windischmann

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 819 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104499 (3 pages) | Cited 26 times

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Quantitative characterizational methods are required to optimize vapor‐deposited diamond thin films for optical applications. In this work, spectroellipsometry has been applied to deduce two important characteristics of diamond films: the volume fraction of sp2‐bonded defects in the bulk and the thickness of the roughness layer on the surface. We have determined these characteristics versus substrate temperature and CH4:H2 flow ratio for optical quality films prepared to 1000–4000 Å by microwave plasma‐assisted chemical vapor deposition. Under optimum conditions, uniform films with ∼100 Å roughness and 3 vol.% bulk sp2C are obtained.
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78.66.-w Optical properties of specific thin films
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
07.60.Fs Polarimeters and ellipsometers
81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)

Domain boundary control of edge roughness in vicinal Si(001)

B. S. Swartzentruber, Y. W. Mo, and M. G. Lagally

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 822 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104500 (3 pages) | Cited 18 times

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Steps on vicinal Si(001) miscut toward 〈110〉 directions are known to be alternately rough and smooth. It is shown that a significant contribution to the local meandering of the rough edge, so‐called ‘‘kissing sites,’’ are nonthermodynamic. They are caused by surface antiphase domains that are created during surface cleaning.
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81.65.-b Surface treatments
68.35.Md Surface thermodynamics, surface energies
68.35.B- Structure of clean surfaces (and surface reconstruction)
81.15.Hi Molecular, atomic, ion, and chemical beam epitaxy

X‐ray rocking curve measurement of composition and strain in Si‐Ge buffer layers grown on Si substrates

M. Fatemi and R. E. Stahlbush

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 825 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104501 (3 pages) | Cited 51 times

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The level of strain and the fraction of Ge in SiGe layers grown on Si can be found rapidly and unambiguously using double‐crystal x‐ray diffraction and a simple application of the linear elasticity theory combined with Vegard’s law. The method gives excellent results for 0.4‐μm‐thick buffer layers of SiGe/Si containing 5%–50% germanium. It is shown that lattice relaxation rises abruptly at x(Ge)≥15%, and that some strain remains for x(Ge) as high as 50%.
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61.05.cp X-ray diffraction
62.20.D- Elasticity
81.15.Hi Molecular, atomic, ion, and chemical beam epitaxy

High quality planar HgCdTe photodiodes fabricated by the organometallic epitaxy (Direct Alloy Growth Process)

S. K. Ghandhi, K. K. Parat, H. Ehsani, and I. B. Bhat

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 828 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104502 (3 pages) | Cited 8 times

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Hg1−xCdxTe, grown by the alloy organometallic vapor phase epitaxy technique, was used in the fabrication of p‐n junction photodiodes. Hg1−xCdxTe layers, capped with a CdTe cap, were grown in a continuous run by the direct alloy growth process. These layers were p type due to column II vacancies, with a concentration of 3–4×1016/cm3. n‐type regions were obtained by selectively annealing the Hg1−xCdxTe layer after opening windows in the CdTe cap layer. Vertical p‐n junction diodes, with CdTe as the junction passivant, were thus formed in a planar configuration. Photodiodes, with cutoff wavelengths of 4.5 μm at 77 K, had R0 A products in excess of 9×107 Ω cm2.
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85.60.Dw Photodiodes; phototransistors; photoresistors
85.30.Kk Junction diodes
73.40.Lq Other semiconductor-to-semiconductor contacts, p-n junctions, and heterojunctions
72.80.Ey III-V and II-VI semiconductors

Contour photoetching of n‐type semiconductors

J. van de Ven and H. J. P. Nabben

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 831 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104503 (3 pages) | Cited 3 times

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In wet photoetching of semiconductors with a projected beam on a large surface the kinetics are limited by the dissolution of reaction products at high light intensities. The structures obtained after prolonged etching are of no practical use. For short etching times, however, it is shown that in specific etchants the contour of the projected beam can be etched, whereas the central part remains comparatively passive with an etch rate which is at least ten times lower. With this maskless method, narrow grooves can be produced which are interesting for isolation of specific areas of a wafer. The method is discussed and the mechanism explained in detail for n‐GaAs in H2O2/H2SO4 solutions. It is shown that the principle can be extended to other solutions and semiconductors.
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81.65.-b Surface treatments
61.80.Ba Ultraviolet, visible, and infrared radiation effects (including laser radiation)

Native‐oxide‐defined coupled‐stripe AlxGa1−xAs‐GaAs quantum well heterostructure lasers

J. M. Dallesasse, N. Holonyak, D. C. Hall, N. El‐Zein, A. R. Sugg, S. C. Smith, and R. D. Burnham

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 834 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104504 (3 pages) | Cited 11 times

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Data are presented on the continuous‐wave (cw) room‐temperature (300 K) operation of multiple stripe AlxGa1−xAs‐GaAs quantum well heterostructure (QWH) laser arrays defined with native oxide contact masking. Use of the native AlxGa1−xAs(x≳0.7) oxide allows the fabrication of high‐performance devices without depositing foreign oxide or dielectric layers (SiO2 or Si3N4). Arrays of ten 5‐μm‐wide emitters on 7 μm centers are coupled and operate at powers as high as 300 mW per facet, or at wider stripe spacing (5 μm emitters on 10 μm centers) as high as 400 mW per facet. These data indicate that current blocking layers of native oxide, formed from AlxGa1−xAs with H2O vapor in N2 carrier gas (400 °C, 3 h), can be used in the construction of high‐power multiple stripe QWH arrays with excellent performance characteristics.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
73.40.Qv Metal-insulator-semiconductor structures (including semiconductor-to-insulator)
81.15.Kk Vapor phase epitaxy; growth from vapor phase
81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)

Plasma‐enhanced chemical vapor deposition of low‐resistive tungsten thin films

Yong Tae Kim, Suk‐Ki Min, Jong Sung Hong, and Choong Ki Kim

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 837 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104505 (3 pages) | Cited 19 times

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Controlling the wafer temperatures from 200 to 500 °C at H2/WF6 flow ratio equal to 24, low‐resistive (about 11 μΩ cm) tungsten thin films are deposited by plasma‐enhanced chemical vapor deposition. The as‐deposited tungsten films have (110), (200), and (211) oriented bcc structures and Auger depth profile shows that fluorine and oxygen impurities are below the detection limit of Auger electron spectroscopy.
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81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)
73.61.At Metal and metallic alloys
85.40.Ls Metallization, contacts, interconnects; device isolation

p‐n junction diode made of semiconducting diamond films

Ken Okano, Hideo Kiyota, Tatsuya Iwasaki, Tateki Kurosu, Masamori Iida, and Terutaro Nakamura

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 840 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104506 (2 pages) | Cited 18 times

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A diamond p‐n junction diode fabricated by the chemical vapor deposition technique, shows distinct rectification characteristics. From the electron beam induced current measurement, the existence of a depletion region or a space‐charge region around the interface between the n‐ and p‐type semiconducting diamond layers was identified.
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85.30.Kk Junction diodes
73.40.Lq Other semiconductor-to-semiconductor contacts, p-n junctions, and heterojunctions
73.61.Ng Insulators
73.40.Ei Rectification

Effective barrier height, conduction‐band offset, and the influence of p‐type δ doping at heterojunction interfaces: The case of the InAs/GaAs interface

T.‐H. Shen, M. Elliott, R. H. Williams, and D. Westwood

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 842 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104507 (3 pages) | Cited 19 times

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We demonstrate that the effective band discontinuity at an n‐isotype heterojunction interface can be significantly modified by introducing p‐type δ doping close to the interface during molecular beam epitaxy growth. This is shown for the case of the relaxed InAs‐GaAs interface where the band discontinuities with and without δ doping have been measured by the I‐V technique coupled with appropriate numerical modeling of the interface.
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73.40.Kp III-V semiconductor-to-semiconductor contacts, p-n junctions, and heterojunctions
81.15.Hi Molecular, atomic, ion, and chemical beam epitaxy

Application of photodeposited Cd to Schottky barrier diode and transistor fabrication on InP and In0.53Ga0.47As substrates

Thomas J. Licata, Michael T. Schmidt, Richard M. Osgood, Winston K. Chan, and Rajaram Bhat

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 845 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104508 (3 pages) | Cited 1 time

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We report on using a thin (∼200 Å) layer of photodeposited Cd to form high Schottky barrier height contacts to InP and In0.53Ga0.47As. Current‐voltage measurements of the Schottky diodes yield barrier heights of 0.70 and 0.55 eV to InP and In0.53Ga0.47As, respectively. The photodeposition process has been integrated with conventional clean room processing to fabricate Au/Cd/In0.53Ga0.47As transistors with high transconductances (∼200 mS/mm) and operating frequencies ( fmax∼30 GHz). X‐ray photoelectron spectroscopy of thin Cd photodeposits on InP shows that the process produces an interfacial (∼10 Å thick) Cd‐InP reaction zone covered by metallic Cd.
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85.30.Hi Surface barrier, boundary, and point contact devices
85.30.Mn Junction breakdown and tunneling devices (including resonance tunneling devices)
73.40.Ns Metal-nonmetal contacts

Effect of substrate misorientation on surface morphology of homoepitaxial CdTe films grown by organometallic vapor phase epitaxy

D. W. Snyder, S. Mahajan, E. I. Ko, and P. J. Sides

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 848 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104509 (3 pages) | Cited 16 times

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The effect of substrate misorientation on surface morphology of CdTe homoepitaxial films deposited by organometallic vapor phase epitaxy was investigated by deposition onto a substrate polished in the shape of a spherical cap that exposed misorientations up to 15° from the [100] pole. Hillock formation was suppressed for misorientations between 2.5° and 4.5° from the [100] pole towards the nearest {111} Te planes, whereas tilt towards the nearest {111}Cd planes resulted in only a slight improvement in surface morphology. A commonly used direction for misorienting substrates, towards the nearest {110} planes, reduced the size and density of the hillocks but did not completely suppress their formation. Double‐crystal x‐ray rocking curves indicated that high crystalline quality was obtained near the (100) plane, and that misorientations towards the nearest {111}Te planes did not significantly degrade the quality. Arguments have been developed to rationalize these observations.
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81.15.Kk Vapor phase epitaxy; growth from vapor phase
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)
68.35.Fx Diffusion; interface formation

Saturation of Si atom concentration in Si planar‐doped InP layers grown by metalorganic chemical vapor deposition

Hideto Ishikawa, Shiro Miwa, Toshiyuki Maruyama, and Mikio Kamada

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 851 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104510 (3 pages) | Cited 5 times

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A mechanism which causes saturation in Si atom concentration in planar‐doped InP layers was investigated. The layers were grown by atmospheric metalorganic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD) and planar doping was performed by supplying Si2H6 in PH3 atmosphere. We found that the sheet Si atom concentration of the layers saturated as a function of doping time. We propose a new model which can describe the saturation as competition between adsorption and desorption. This model will describe the doping time dependence and the PH3 flow rate dependence of sheet Si atom concentration of planar‐doped InP layers grown by MOCVD.
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81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)
68.55.Ln Defects and impurities: doping, implantation, distribution, concentration, etc.
68.35.Dv Composition, segregation; defects and impurities

Temperature‐dependent critical layer thickness for In0.36Ga0.64As/GaAs single quantum wells

M. J. Ekenstedt, S. M. Wang, and T. G. Andersson

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 854 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104511 (2 pages) | Cited 26 times

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A series of In0.36Ga0.64As/GaAs single quantum wells were grown by molecular beam epitaxy to investigate the dependence of the critical layer thickness (CLT) on growth temperature. The layers were grown between 410 and 590 °C. Photoluminescence was then used to determine the CLT as the onset of three‐dimensional growth which occurs at 15 Å for 570 °C and at 55 Å when grown at 470 °C. Our results indicate a strong and nearly linear temperature dependence for the CLT.
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81.15.Hi Molecular, atomic, ion, and chemical beam epitaxy
78.55.Cr III-V semiconductors
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology

Porous silicon formation: A quantum wire effect

V. Lehmann and U. Gösele

Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 856 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104512 (3 pages) | Cited 508 times

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Porous silicon layers grown on nondegenerated p‐type silicon electrodes in hydrofluoric acid electrolytes are translucent for visible light, which is equivalent to an increased band gap compared to bulk silicon. It will be shown that a two‐dimensional quantum confinement (quantum wire) in the very narrow walls between the pores not only explains the change in band‐gap energy but may also be the key to better understanding the dissolution mechanism that leads to porous silicon formation.
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81.15.Lm Liquid phase epitaxy; deposition from liquid phases (melts, solutions, and surface layers on liquids)
73.21.-b Electron states and collective excitations in multilayers, quantum wells, mesoscopic, and nanoscale systems
82.65.+r Surface and interface chemistry; heterogeneous catalysis at surfaces
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