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2 Sep 1991

Volume 59, Issue 10, pp. 1141-1262

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1.5 μm InGaAsP/InP vertically coupled semiconductor optical pre‐amplifier

Henry P. Lee, A. Scherer, W. P. Hong, C. E. Zah, M. Orenstein, R. Bhat, E. D. Beebe, N. Andreadakis, and M. A. Koza

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 1141 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.105537 (3 pages) | Cited 2 times

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Vertical coupling of light output from a stripe InGaAsP/InP laser amplifier to the bottom of the substrate for detection by means of a 45° mirror has been demonstrated. The composite‐cavity amplifier structure is shown to have an inherent low facet reflectivity and unidirectional amplification property. With a fiber‐to‐detector gain of 15.4 dB and a nearly diffraction‐limited output spot size, the device is suitable for compact integration with a photodetector as an optical pre‐amplifier in a high bit‐rate direct detection system.
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42.60.Da Resonators, cavities, amplifiers, arrays, and rings
42.55.Mv Dye lasers
42.82.-m Integrated optics
42.79.Sz Optical communication systems, multiplexers, and demultiplexers

Highly multiplexed graded‐index polymer waveguide hologram for near‐infrared eight‐channel wavelength division demultiplexing

Ray T. Chen, Huey Lu, Daniel Robinson, and Tomasz Jannson

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 1144 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.105538 (3 pages) | Cited 8 times

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An eight‐channel single‐mode wavelength division demultiplexer operating at 740, 750, 760, 770, 780, 790, 800, and 810 nm with diffraction angle varying from 16° to 44° and using a graded index (GRIN) polymer waveguide is reported for the first time. Diffraction efficiency up to 55% was measured. The wavelength spreading of the Ti:Al2O3 laser (∼4 nm, 3 dB bandwidth) causes an average crosstalk figure of −15.8 dB. The beamwidth of the diffracted signal as a function of the input beamwidth, the grating interaction length, and the diffraction angle are considered. Occurrence of the maximum value is further discussed. A waveguide lens is needed to efficiently couple the diffracted light into an output fiber whenever the diffracted beam size is beyond the core diameter of the fiber involved.
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42.81.Ht Gradient-index (GRIN) fiber devices
42.40.Ht Hologram recording and readout methods
74.20.-z Theories and models of superconducting state
42.79.Gn Optical waveguides and couplers

5 GHz modulation of a mushroom mesa surface emitting laser

T. G. Dziura, Y. J. Yang, R. Fernandez, and S. C. Wang

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 1147 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.105539 (3 pages) | Cited 3 times

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A modulation bandwidth approaching 5 GHz in a GaAs quantum well vertical cavity surface emitting laser with a mushroom mesa structure is reported. The modulation speed and the maximum power of 1.5 mW were limited by device heating. The second harmonic distortion as a function of frequency was measured at an injection current twice threshold and an optical modulation index of 10%, and a peak distortion of about −25 dBc was obtained.
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42.60.Fc Modulation, tuning, and mode locking
42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.65.Ky Frequency conversion; harmonic generation, including higher-order harmonic generation

Correlation of spectral output and below‐threshold gain profile modulation in 1.3 μm semiconductor diode lasers

Joseph E. Hayward and Daniel T. Cassidy

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 1150 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.105540 (3 pages)

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A residue which is characteristic of internal scattering is extracted from the below threshold spectra of 1.3 μm semiconductor diode lasers by fitting a smooth function to the measured gain profile. The residue is found to be correlated with the above threshold spectral output. This suggests that the amount of scattering in the active region is an important quantity in determining the spectral output of semiconductor diode lasers.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.60.Da Resonators, cavities, amplifiers, arrays, and rings
42.60.Fc Modulation, tuning, and mode locking

Super‐Gaussian reflectivity unstable resonator for excimer lasers

M. R. Perrone, F. Mezzolla, C. Cali’, and C. Pace

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 1153 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106391 (3 pages) | Cited 7 times

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High‐mode‐volume, good optical quality laser beams of 55 mJ, of 19 ns duration and with a brightness of 3×1013 W cm−2 Sr−1, have been extracted from a high‐gain, short‐pulse XeCl laser, with an unstable resonator using a super‐Gaussian reflectivity mirror. The misalignment angle of the output coupler to decrease the normalized output energy by 20% was 3.5 mrad.
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42.60.Da Resonators, cavities, amplifiers, arrays, and rings
42.55.Lt Gas lasers including excimer and metal-vapor lasers

Theoretical and experimental investigation of conversion of phase noise to intensity noise by Rayleigh scattering in optical fibers

S. Wu, A. Yariv, H. Blauvelt, and N. Kwong

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 1156 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.105541 (3 pages) | Cited 6 times

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The conversion of laser phase noise to intensity fluctuation noise in optical fibers due to mixing with Rayleigh scattered light is considered. A theory combining the laser quantum phase dynamics and the statistical scattering in the fiber leads to simple expressions for the spectral densities of the intensity fluctuations in a number of generic cases. These are compared with experiments involving distributed feedback semiconductor lasers and low‐loss fibers with lengths up to 20 km.
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42.81.Dp Propagation, scattering, and losses; solitons
42.60.Da Resonators, cavities, amplifiers, arrays, and rings
42.79.Sz Optical communication systems, multiplexers, and demultiplexers

Electro‐optic sampling of poled organic media

J. I. Thackara, D. M. Bloom, and B. A. Auld

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 1159 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.105542 (3 pages) | Cited 11 times

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We report the use of electro‐optic sampling techniques in the measurement of the electro‐optic frequency response of a poled organic layer, to 20 GHz. The organic material tested was a Disperse Red 1/poly(cyclohexyl methacrylate) guest/host system which was deposited and poled on top of a GaAs based coplanar waveguide transmission line. The GaAs substrate also served as the reference electro‐optic material in the hybrid structure, which was optically sampled from both sides.
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78.66.Qn Polymers; organic compounds
78.20.Jq Electro-optical effects
42.79.Hp Optical processors, correlators, and modulators

Comparison of the theoretical and experimental differential gain in strained layer InGaAs/GaAs quantum well lasers

L. F. Lester, S. D. Offsey, B. K. Ridley, W. J. Schaff, B. A. Foreman, and L. F. Eastman

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 1162 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.105543 (3 pages) | Cited 8 times

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A theoretical model that uses simple, analytic valence band equations to calculate the differential gain in strained layer InGaAs/GaAs quantum wells shows good agreement with experimental differential gain values obtained from multiple quantum well strained layer lasers. The differential gain in these devices is 7 times greater than in bulk, p‐type doped InGaAsP lasers. Calculations including nonlinear damping effects indicate that modulation bandwidths exceeding 60 GHz should be achievable in strained layer quantum well lasers.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.60.Fc Modulation, tuning, and mode locking

Room‐temperature cw operation at 2.2 μm of GaInAsSb/AlGaAsSb diode lasers grown by molecular beam epitaxy

H. K. Choi and S. J. Eglash

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 1165 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.105544 (2 pages) | Cited 31 times

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Gain‐guided Ga0.84In0.16As0.14Sb0.86/Al0.75 Ga0.25As0.06Sb0.94 double‐heterostructure lasers emitting at ∼2.2 μm have been operated cw at heat sink temperatures up to 30 °C. The maximum output powers obtained at 5 and 20 °C were 10.5 and 4.6 mW/facet, respectively. For pulsed operation of broad‐stripe lasers 300 μm wide and 1000 μm long, the threshold current density was as low as 940 A/cm2, the lowest room‐temperature value reported for diode lasers emitting beyond 2 μm.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.60.Da Resonators, cavities, amplifiers, arrays, and rings

Electrostatic trapping of contamination particles in a process plasma environment

Robert N. Carlile, Sam Geha, John F. O’Hanlon, and John C. Stewart

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 1167 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.105545 (3 pages) | Cited 82 times

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A number of authors have observed, by using light scattering from a laser beam, contamination particles suspended in an rf process plasma. The region of space occupied by the particles appears finite, e.g., a ring; there is experimental evidence that the particles are negatively charged. We show, by using a tuned Langmuir probe, that the trap is electrostatic in nature. The volume of a trap is as much as 5 V larger in electrostatic potential than the surrounding plasma. This means that the volume of the trap is positively charged with the electric field being directed outward from the trap. Thus, negatively charged particles will flow into it. The electrostatic potential rises so rapidly at a trap boundary that a double layer may exist there. Finally, the plasma‐sheath interface is found to follow the topographic contour of the rf electrode surface.  
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85.40.Hp Lithography, masks and pattern transfer
52.80.Tn Other gas discharges
52.20.Dq Particle orbits
52.38.-r Laser-plasma interactions

Low temperature and low pressure diamond synthesis in a microwave electron cyclotron resonance discharge

J. J. Chang, T. D. Mantei, Rama Vuppuladhadium, and Howard E. Jackson

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 1170 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.105546 (3 pages) | Cited 20 times

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High quality diamond films have been grown at low temperature (540–650 °C) and low pressure (2–20 Torr) in a microwave electron cyclotron resonance CH4‐O2‐H2 discharge. The films were characterized by microprobe Raman spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy. Diamond crystals grown at ∼600 °C and 10 Torr with 2% oxygen exhibit a characteristic Raman peak at 1334 cm−1 with no accompanying nondiamond carbon peaks.
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81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)
81.15.Kk Vapor phase epitaxy; growth from vapor phase
78.30.Hv Other nonmetallic inorganics

Stability of a hedgehog nematic configuration in a small closed cylindrical cavity

Shu‐Hsia Chen and B. J. Liang

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 1173 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.105494 (3 pages) | Cited 6 times

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This letter presents a study on the stability of molecular configurations in a small closed nematic liquid‐crystal cell. A volume point defect exists at the center of the cell with the molecules anchored perpendicularly to the cavity wall. We show that the transformation of a radial hedgehog to a hyperbolic one should occur when the ratio of splay‐to‐bend elastic constants becomes larger than a certain value that depends on the cell geometry.
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61.30.Gd Orientational order of liquid crystals; electric and magnetic field effects on order
61.30.Cz Molecular and microscopic models and theories of liquid crystal structure

Simulating growth of Mo/Si multilayers

W. Lowell Morgan and David B. Boercker

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 1176 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.105495 (3 pages) | Cited 18 times

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Multilayer structures of alternating thin layers of molybdenum and silicon are of great interest as x‐ray optics components and a considerable amount of effort has been expended in their development. The efficiencies of these structures depend upon both the accurate control of the layer thicknesses and the sharpness in the interface between layers. High‐ resolution electron microscopy reveals that the interface created by deposition of Mo on Si is much more diffuse than that produced by depositing Si on Mo. We have used molecular dynamics to simulate the deposition processes and observe significant penetration of the Si substrates by the incident Mo atoms, while incident Si atoms remain on the surface of the Mo substrate.
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81.15.Cd Deposition by sputtering
68.65.-k Low-dimensional, mesoscopic, nanoscale and other related systems: structure and nonelectronic properties
81.10.Aj Theory and models of crystal growth; physics and chemistry of crystal growth, crystal morphology, and orientation

Relief of thermal stress in heteroepitaxial GaAs on Si by mesa release and deposition

J. De Boeck, C. Van Hoof, K. Deneffe, R. P. Mertens, and G. Borghs

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 1179 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106389 (3 pages) | Cited 2 times

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We demonstrate a mesa release and deposition (MRD) technology to realize stress relief in GaAs layers on Si, useful in practical device applications. A thin AlAs layer is incorporated in the heteroepitaxial GaAs layer about 1 μm from the GaAs/Si interface. Mesas are etched down to the AlAs release layer and subsequently underetched in a 5% HF solution at room temperature. Photoresist clamps keep the mesas in their exact position during the underetch process which results in a self‐aligned redeposition on the substrate after resist removal. We used spatially resolved photoluminescence on 100×200 μm2 GaAs‐on‐Si mesas before and after the MRD process to demonstrate the stress relief. Uniform stress relief is found and the residual strain observed in the photoluminescence spectra at 77 K (0.05±0.02%) is attributed to strain thermally induced upon cooling from 300 to 77 K.
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81.15.Hi Molecular, atomic, ion, and chemical beam epitaxy
81.15.-z Methods of deposition of films and coatings; film growth and epitaxy
78.66.Fd III-V semiconductors
78.66.Hf II-VI semiconductors
71.70.Ej Spin-orbit coupling, Zeeman and Stark splitting, Jahn-Teller effect

Analysis of nonohmic current‐voltage characteristics in a Cu‐compensated GaAs photoconductor

Michael S. Mazzola, Randy A. Roush, David C. Stoudt, and Scott F. Griffiths

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 1182 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.105496 (3 pages) | Cited 1 time

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See Also: Erratum

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An analysis of observations of nonohmic current conduction in a copper‐compensated GaAs (GaAs:Cu) photoconductive switch is presented. It is demonstrated that conduction during illumination and at modest current densities can be attributed to an optically injected plasma influenced by single‐injection contact effects. However, at higher current densities, a double‐injection model is more suitable. We provide further evidence that the transition from a single‐injection process to a double‐injection process is accompanied by the formation of at least one current filament with cross‐sectional area of 5×10−4 cm2, and a peak current density greater than 103 A/cm2. We finish by suggesting avalanche breakdown at the n+−i anode junction as a possible mechanism for the onset of significant hole injection at the anode, a condition necessary to justify the use of a double‐injection‐dominated transport model in an essentially n‐i‐n device.
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85.30.De Semiconductor-device characterization, design, and modeling
85.30.Fg Bulk semiconductor and conductivity oscillation devices (including Hall effect devices, space-charge-limited devices, and Gunn effect devices)
72.40.+w Photoconduction and photovoltaic effects
72.80.Ey III-V and II-VI semiconductors

Solubility of interstitial oxygen in silicon

W. Wijaranakula

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 1185 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.105497 (3 pages) | Cited 7 times

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An indirect method of determining the solubility of interstitial oxygen in silicon by monitoring the precipitation rate of oxygen is presented. The solubility of interstitial oxygen is described by the Arrhenius equation Ceqi = 5.5 × 1020 exp(−0.89 eV/kT)atoms/cm3. The estimated solubility is in agreement with the published data obtained from the infrared measurements. The result indicates that the nucleation model in condensed systems proposed by Becker [Pro. Phys. Soc. 52, 71 (1940)] is also applicable to the precipitation kinetics of oxygen in silicon.
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64.75.-g Phase equilibria
81.40.Cd Solid solution hardening, precipitation hardening, and dispersion hardening; aging
61.72.J- Point defects and defect clusters

In situ technique for measurement and control of transistor characteristics during remote plasma etching

David Lishan and Evelyn Hu

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 1188 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.105498 (3 pages)

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In situ electrical monitoring has been carried out in a remote plasma etching system allowing accurate control of device electrical parameters. We have used this technique to gate recess‐etch two different high electron mobility transistor structures while recording device source‐drain I‐V characteristics throughout the etching. Current versus etching time data and time elapsed I‐V curves are presented.
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85.40.Hp Lithography, masks and pattern transfer
81.65.-b Surface treatments
85.30.De Semiconductor-device characterization, design, and modeling

Barrier height change in GaAs Schottky diodes induced by piezoelectric effect

Ki‐Woong Chung, Z. Wang, J. C. Costa, F. Williamson, P. P. Ruden, and M. I. Nathan

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 1191 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.105499 (3 pages) | Cited 18 times

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A novel manifestation of piezoelectric effects in GaAs has been observed. The change of barrier height, ϕB, of Schottky diodes induced by uniaxial stresses, S, along 〈100〉, 〈011〉, 〈011〉, and 〈111〉 has been measured. Shifts in ϕB due to the appearance of piezoelectric polarization charges at the semiconductor‐metal interface for directions other than 〈100〉 are observed.
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73.20.At Surface states, band structure, electron density of states
73.30.+y Surface double layers, Schottky barriers, and work functions
85.30.Hi Surface barrier, boundary, and point contact devices

Wide area near afterglow oxygen radical source used as a polymer resist asher

Zengqi Yu, George Collins, Shuzo Hattori, Dai Sugimoto, and Masahiro Saita

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 1194 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.105500 (3 pages) | Cited 1 time

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An active oxygen plasma of disk shape is used to ash photoresist films with ±5% variation in the uniformity over 15‐cm‐diam wafers located in a field‐free downstream region which we term the near afterglow. In the near afterglow the resist surface is exposed primarily to both an atomic oxygen flux (1018 atoms cm−2 s−1) as well as a flux of 130.6 nm oxygen resonance radiation (10−3 W cm−2 Sr−1). Under these conditions an ashing rate of 1.5 μm/min for OFPR‐800 resist is obtained at 100 °C substrate temperature, with an etch activation energy of 1.1 kcal/mol. 
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81.65.-b Surface treatments
85.40.Hp Lithography, masks and pattern transfer

Simulation of effects of uniaxial stress on the deep level transient spectroscopy spectra of the DX center in AlGaAs alloys

Ming‐fu Li, Peter Y. Yu, and E. R. Weber

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 1197 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.105501 (3 pages) | Cited 1 time

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Recently the effect of uniaxial stress on the deep level transient spectroscopy (DLTS) of the DX center in AlGaAs alloys have been reported by two separate groups. In both experiments no splitting of the DLTS peak was observed. We have analyzed the experimental results in terms of a large lattice relaxation model in which the DX center can have either a positive or a negative Coulomb energy U. We found that if the symmetry of the DX center depended on its charge state then its DLTS peak was not split by uniaxial stress in contrast to other defects with large lattice relaxation (such as the A center in Si).
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71.55.Eq III-V semiconductors

Effects of Ge concentration on SiGe oxidation behavior

H. K. Liou, P. Mei, U. Gennser, and E. S. Yang

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 1200 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.105502 (3 pages) | Cited 73 times

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The oxidation of SiGe layers grown by molecular beam epitaxy was studied. Auger depth profile showed that after oxidation, Ge was completely rejected from the oxide and Ge‐rich layers were formed. However, the Ge concentration in the SiGe layer was found to play an important role in the formation of these Ge‐Rich layers. For SiGe with Ge concentration below 50%, Si was preferentially oxidized and only one Ge‐rich layer was formed at the oxide/substrate interface. On the other hand, for SiGe with Ge concentration above 50%, two Ge‐rich layers were formed after oxidation with one at the oxide/substrate interface and the other at the oxide surface. X‐ray photoelectron spectroscopy studies showed that Ge at the oxide/substrate interface is in elemental form, while Ge at the oxide surface is in an intermediate oxidized state. A classical binary alloy oxidation theory is employed to explain the overall oxidation behavior qualitatively.
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81.65.-b Surface treatments
81.15.Hi Molecular, atomic, ion, and chemical beam epitaxy

Dynamic optical reflectivity to monitor the real‐time metalorganic molecular beam epitaxial growth of AlGaAs layers

Trevor Farrell, John V. Armstrong, and Philip Kightley

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 1203 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.105503 (3 pages) | Cited 20 times

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Oscillations in the reflectivity of AlxGa1−xAs, grown on GaAs at 870 K have been measured at 632.8 nm over the range 0≤x≤1. The oscillations are fitted to the standard theory of reflection from a bilayer with the complex refractive index (n+ik) of substrate and film as fitting parameters. For GaAs the values of n and k are measured as 3.9+i0.23 at 870 K. Assuming n varies linearly with x for AlxGa1−xAs between 3.1(A1As) and 3.9(GaAs) then the period of the oscillations gives an accurate measurement of growth rate, while the amplitude allows the film composition to be monitored simultaneously. All layers were grown by metalorganic molecular beam epitaxy (MOMBE).
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81.15.Hi Molecular, atomic, ion, and chemical beam epitaxy
81.15.-z Methods of deposition of films and coatings; film growth and epitaxy
78.20.Ci Optical constants (including refractive index, complex dielectric constant, absorption, reflection and transmission coefficients, emissivity)
07.60.Hv Refractometers and reflectometers

Zn1−yCdySe1−xTex quaternary wide band‐gap alloys: Molecular beam epitaxial growth and optical properties

Maria J. S. P. Brasil, Maria C. Tamargo, R. E. Nahory, H. L. Gilchrist, and R. J. Martin

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 1206 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.105504 (3 pages) | Cited 10 times

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We report the growth of Zn1−yCdySe1−xTex alloys by molecular beam epitaxy on GaAs substrates. The optical properties and the band structure of this new material have been investigated. The compositional dependence of the quaternary band gap was studied using photoconductivity measurements and is well described by a third degree function of x and y. Photoluminescence spectra at low temperature show a single broad band, which narrows with increasing Te composition. We discuss the applicability of this new material for ZnSe/ZnCdSeTe heterostructures and predict a region of optimal band offsets for useful confinement of both electrons and holes.
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81.15.Hi Molecular, atomic, ion, and chemical beam epitaxy
78.55.Et II-VI semiconductors
68.55.Nq Composition and phase identification

Observation of inverse U‐shaped profiles after platinum diffusion in silicon

H. Zimmermann and H. Ryssel

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 1209 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.105505 (3 pages) | Cited 13 times

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Inverse U‐shaped profiles of platinum in silicon were obtained after diffusion at 700 °C. Deep level transient spectroscopy was used to determine the platinum concentrations in various depths of the samples. In the bulk, a higher concentration of platinum was found than at the surface. Therefore, these platinum profiles are called ‘‘inverse U‐shaped profiles.’’ These diffusion profiles can be described by the Frank–Turnbull mechanism, assuming that the initial concentration of vacancies is higher than their equilibrium concentration. Therefore, the observation of inverse U‐shaped profiles after platinum diffusion may serve as the evidence that diffusion processes, which involve vacancies, are determined in the bulk by the initial vacancy concentration and not by the vacancy equilibrium concentration at temperatures of ∼850 °C and below.
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61.72.jd Vacancies
61.72.jj Interstitials
66.30.J- Diffusion of impurities
81.65.-b Surface treatments
61.72.sd Impurity concentration
61.72.sh Impurity distribution
61.72.sm Impurity gradients

Effect of fluorine on the diffusion of through‐oxide implanted boron in silicon

D. Fan, J. M. Parks, and R. J. Jaccodine

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 1212 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.105506 (3 pages) | Cited 11 times

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Annealing of boron through‐oxide implanted silicon has been known to induce an incubated, oxygen‐precipitation enhanced boron diffusion. In this letter, it is shown that annealing the ‘‘through‐oxide’’ implants in a NF3‐containing N2 ambient effectively reduces the incubated enhanced diffusion. The effect of fluorine is further demonstrated for boron plus fluorine through‐oxide implants with pure N2 annealing. Comparing the boron diffusion between boron plus fluorine and boron plus neon implants suggests that fluorine does not have a chemical effect on capturing the point defects that cause the enhanced diffusion. Rather, fluorine is believed to be incorporated in the oxygen precipitates, which alters the point defect generation.
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68.55.Ln Defects and impurities: doping, implantation, distribution, concentration, etc.
61.72.up Other materials
61.72.sd Impurity concentration
61.72.sh Impurity distribution
61.72.sm Impurity gradients
61.72.uf Ge and Si
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