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23 Sep 1991

Volume 59, Issue 13, pp. 1523-1646

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High‐contrast optically bistable optoelectronic switch based on InGaAs/GaAs (100) asymmetric Fabry–Perot modulator, detector, and resonant tunneling diode

Li Chen, R. M. Kapre, Kezhong Hu, and A. Madhukar

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 1523 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106270 (3 pages) | Cited 5 times

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The realization at room temperature of a high contrast ratio (20:1) and an on‐state reflectivity of 46.5% in an optically bistable switch involving strained InGaAs/GaAs (100) multiple‐quantum‐well‐based asymmetric Fabry–Perot reflection modulator, detector, and InGaAs/AlAs‐based resonant tunneling diode and an Si field‐effect transistor is reported.
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42.65.Pc Optical bistability, multistability, and switching, including local field effects
78.66.Fd III-V semiconductors
78.66.Hf II-VI semiconductors
85.60.-q Optoelectronic devices

Passive mode locking of a multistripe single quantum well GaAs laser diode with an intracavity saturable absorber

Joseph H. Zarrabi, E. L. Portnoi, and A. V. Chelnokov

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 1526 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106271 (3 pages) | Cited 5 times

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A multistripe, single quantum well GaAs laser diode is passively mode locked without an external cavity. The intracavity saturable absorber is formed by ion implantation of the laser diode’s facet. The dose and energy of implanted ions were adjusted to achieve mode locking. This monolithically integrated laser diode and saturable absorber generates 40 GHz optical pulses with a pulse width of 5 ps.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.60.Fc Modulation, tuning, and mode locking
42.55.Rz Doped-insulator lasers and other solid state lasers

Room‐temperature CO2 laser radiation detector

T. A. S. Srinivas, P. J. Timans, R. J. Butcher, and H. Ahmed

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 1529 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106272 (3 pages) | Cited 4 times

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A novel microthermopile for CO2 laser radiation detection with a fast response time has been fabricated for the first time. The microthermopile is fabricated by high‐resolution e‐beam lithography and isotropic plasma etching of the substrate resulting in free‐standing hot junctions which are thermally isolated from the substrate. The good thermal isolation and small heat capacity of the hot junctions resulted in a responsivity of 60 V/W and a time constant of 20 μs. The device operates over the entire CO2 laser wavelength range from 9.4 to 10.6 μm. Detailed measurements are presented for 10.6 μm operation.
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85.60.Gz Photodetectors (including infrared and CCD detectors)
07.57.Kp Bolometers; infrared, submillimeter wave, microwave, and radiowave receivers and detectors
85.40.Hp Lithography, masks and pattern transfer
85.80.Fi Thermoelectric devices

Low‐threshold InGaAs/GaAs strained‐layer ridge waveguide surface emitting lasers with two 45° angle etched internal total reflection mirrors

Chih‐Ping Chao, Kwok‐Keung Law, and James L. Merz

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 1532 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106273 (3 pages) | Cited 3 times

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A new type of in‐plane surface emitting laser structure with two 45° mirrors has been demonstrated. The device is a ridge waveguide laser with total reflection mirrors etched at 45° to the plane of the active layer, having an epitaxially grown distributed Bragg reflector. Continuous‐wave threshold current as low as 10 mA with 12% external differential quantum efficiency is achieved on a 5‐μm‐wide, 400‐μm‐long device.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.60.By Design of specific laser systems
42.60.Da Resonators, cavities, amplifiers, arrays, and rings
42.82.-m Integrated optics

Generation of blue coherent light from a continuous‐wave semiconductor laser using an organic crystal‐cored fiber

Akinori Harada, Yoji Okazaki, Koji Kamiyama, and Shinsuke Umegaki

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 1535 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106274 (3 pages) | Cited 23 times

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Efficient frequency doubling of a continuous‐wave semiconductor laser was attained by using a nonlinear optical fiber with a single crystal core of an organic 3,5‐dimethyl‐1‐ (4‐nitrophenyl)pyrazole. The second‐harmonic power generated with a 15 mm length of the fiber reached 0.16 mW from the incident 16.6‐mW fundamental laser power at 884 nm. Nonlinear optical properties of the crystal and a fabrication technique of the fiber are also reported.
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42.65.Ky Frequency conversion; harmonic generation, including higher-order harmonic generation
42.81.Gs Birefringence, polarization
42.70.-a Optical materials
42.60.Da Resonators, cavities, amplifiers, arrays, and rings

Fabrication of first‐order periodically domain‐inverted structure in LiTaO3

Kiminori Mizuuchi, Kazuhisa Yamamoto, and Tetsuo Taniuchi

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 1538 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106275 (3 pages) | Cited 15 times

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We report on fabrication of first‐order periodically domain‐inverted structure in LiTaO3 by using selective proton exchange and heat treatment. Observation of the formation process of domain inversion makes it clear that the shape of the inverted region depends on time and temperature of heat treatment. As a result, enlargement of inversion width in heat treatment is suppressed by shortening the heat treatment time. First‐order periodically domain‐inverted structure, which has 3.5 μm period and 1.5 μm depth, is realized.
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42.70.-a Optical materials
42.65.Ky Frequency conversion; harmonic generation, including higher-order harmonic generation
42.79.Gn Optical waveguides and couplers
78.20.Ls Magneto-optical effects

Phase‐matching retracing behavior: New features in LiB3O5

Shujie Lin, Baichang Wu, Fali Xie, and Chuangtian Chen

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 1541 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106276 (3 pages) | Cited 27 times

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See Also: Erratum

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Retraces of phase‐matching (PM) angles and noncritical phase‐matching temperatures for both type I and type II second harmonic generation in LiB3O5(LBO) are first demonstrated. By fitting to the measured PM angles at room temperature, new Sellmeier’s equations of LBO are obtained. Further analyzing the spectral and angle acceptances, we point out that LBO is particularly useful in doubling radiations near 1.3 μm such as 1.32 μm of Nd:YAG, 1.31 μm of Nd:YLF, and 1.34 μm of Nd:YAP.
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42.65.Ky Frequency conversion; harmonic generation, including higher-order harmonic generation
78.20.Ci Optical constants (including refractive index, complex dielectric constant, absorption, reflection and transmission coefficients, emissivity)
42.70.-a Optical materials

Determination of the flexural modulus of thin films from measurement of the first arrival of the symmetric Lamb wave

Sarah E. Bobbin, J. W. Wagner, and R. C. Cammarata

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 1544 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106277 (3 pages) | Cited 18 times

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A technique is presented to measure the flexural modulus of free‐standing thin metallic films from 1 to 25 μm thick. Lamb waves are excited in the film with a pulsed Nd:YAG laser, and detected using heterodyne interferometry. Variability in wave‐form structure is observed as a function of experimental parameters and film thickness. The first arrival of the symmetric Lamb mode can be unambiguously identified regardless of wave‐form shape, and is used to calculate the flexural modulus.
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68.60.Bs Mechanical and acoustical properties
68.35.Gy Mechanical properties; surface strains
62.65.+k Acoustical properties of solids

Anomalous etch rates of photoresist with argon dilution of CF4/O2 plasma afterglows

Milo D. Koretsky and Jeffrey A. Reimer

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 1547 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106278 (3 pages) | Cited 4 times

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It is shown that the downstream etching of a photoresist with CF4/O2 mixtures can be enhanced by a factor of at least 2 with addition of argon to the gas mixture. Analysis of the oxygen and fluorine atom densities with gas‐phase magnetic resonance downstream of the discharge suggests that argon metastables alter the homogeneous chemistry for fluorine atom production as well as the heterogeneous chemistry of photoresist chain scission.
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81.05.Lg Polymers and plastics; rubber; synthetic and natural fibers; organometallic and organic materials
81.65.-b Surface treatments
85.40.Hp Lithography, masks and pattern transfer
52.80.Hc Glow; corona
82.33.Xj Plasma reactions (including flowing afterglow and electric discharges)

Real‐time Raman measurements of graphite under Ar+ irradiation

Kazutaka Nakamura and Masahiro Kitajima

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 1550 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106279 (3 pages) | Cited 25 times

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The time dependence of the Raman spectra of graphite is measured under 3‐keV Ar+‐ion irradiation by developing a real‐time Raman measurement apparatus. An ion flux of 3×1011 ions/cm2 s is used and the time resolution of the Raman measurement is about 6 s. The lattice damage of graphite is evaluated by the relative intensity of the disorder‐induced peak (∼1360 cm−1) with respect to the Raman active E2g2 mode peak (∼1580 cm−1). An initial steep rise and a successive slow increase to saturation of the relative intensity ratio are observed.
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78.30.Hv Other nonmetallic inorganics
61.80.Jh Ion radiation effects

The bulk modulus of C60 molecules and crystals: A molecular mechanics approach

Rodney S. Ruoff and Arthur L. Ruoff

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 1553 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106280 (3 pages) | Cited 32 times

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In this letter, the bulk modulus of an individual C60 molecule is calculated in terms of the C,C bond force constant. A range of values for the bulk modulus is obtained with literature values for the force constant. The values obtained all exceed the bulk modulus (441 GPa) of diamond. With a C,C bond force constant equal to that between adjacent carbon atoms in graphite, 7.08 mdyn/Å, a bulk modulus of 903 GPa is obtained. On the basis of a simple composite model it is calculated that single closest‐packed C60 crystals of C60 will have a bulk modulus of roughly 668 GPa under hydrostatic pressures. The calculated bulk modulus for a single C60 ‘‘buckyball’’ therefore suggests the possibility that a C60 crystal could be the most incompressible material known, at a pressure above about 50 GPa.
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62.50.-p High-pressure effects in solids and liquids
62.20.D- Elasticity
07.35.+k High-pressure apparatus; shock tubes; diamond anvil cells

Measurement of thermal diffusivity of polycrystalline diamond film by the converging thermal wave technique

Grant Lu and Walter T. Swann

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 1556 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106281 (3 pages) | Cited 25 times

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The in‐plane thermal diffusivity of a polycrystalline diamond film has been measured to be 7.05 cm2/s with the converging thermal wave technique. This technique is shown to be simple, accurate, rapid to perform, and is independent of sample thickness and shape. Both high and low thermal diffusivity materials can be characterized with the technique.
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66.30.H- Self-diffusion and ionic conduction in nonmetals
68.35.Fx Diffusion; interface formation

Structural modulations of Bi2Sr2CuO6 studied by in situ x‐ray diffraction

Y. Shen, D. R. Richards, D. G. Hinks, and A. W. Mitchell

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 1559 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106282 (3 pages) | Cited 5 times

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High‐temperature x‐ray diffraction has been carried out on a superconducting single‐phase sample of pseudo‐tetragonal Bi2Sr2CuO6+y, which was obtained from crystallization of thin glassy platelets. The sample displayed (00l) preferred orientation, which made it possible to determine the incommensurate modulation by conventional θ−2θ x‐ray scans. The existence of the modulation peaks (800 °C) indicates that the modulation cannot be caused solely by oxygen ordering. As temperature increased, it was observed that a decrease in the intensity of modulation lines was associated with an increase in intensity of fundamental reflection, which was similar to the order‐disorder phase transition. By removing 0.045(5) oxygen atom per formula unit, the components of modulation satellites along the b∗ and c∗ directions changed from bmod=0.183(9) and cmod=0.315(4) to 0.184(6) and 0.260(4), respectively. This demonstrates that oxygen, while not the sole cause, does play a role in the formation of the structural modulation. However, the invariance of bmod with respect to the change in oxygen content does not support the model which explained the modulation by inserting extra oxygen in BiO plane.
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61.66.Fn Inorganic compounds
61.05.cf X-ray scattering (including small-angle scattering)
61.05.cj X-ray absorption spectroscopy: EXAFS, NEXAFS, XANES, etc.
74.70.-b Superconducting materials other than cuprates

Influence of substrate topography on the nucleation of diamond thin films

Paul A. Dennig and David A. Stevenson

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 1562 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106283 (3 pages) | Cited 61 times

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We have investigated the effect of substrate topography on nucleation behavior by producing a variety of substrate features on molybdenum and silicon substrates. The initial stages of nucleation on these substrates were studied by exposing them to similar conditions in a hot filament chemical vapor deposition reactor. For these materials, nucleation is favored on prominent features of the substrate; that is, features that protrude with sharp edges or apexes, as opposed to sharp valleys or flat regions. Several possible explanations are given for this behavior.
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81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)
64.60.Q- Nucleation
68.35.Fx Diffusion; interface formation

In situ deposition of epitaxial PbZrxTi(1−x)O3 thin films by pulsed laser deposition

J. S. Horwitz, K. S. Grabowski, D. B. Chrisey, and R. E. Leuchtner

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 1565 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106284 (3 pages) | Cited 84 times

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Epitaxial thin films of PbZrxTi(1−x)O3 (PZT) with 0≤x≤0.6 have been deposited in situ by pulsed laser deposition from stoichiometric targets onto 〈100〉 oriented single crystals of MgO and SrTiO3. Film composition was extremely sensitive to the substrate temperature and the oxygen deposition pressure. In a high (200–300 mTorr) oxygen ambient, phase‐pure 〈100〉 oriented PZT films (x=0.54) were formed at a substrate temperature of 550 °C on SrTiO3. On MgO, competition between formation of the ferroelectric phase and a nonferroelectric (pyrochlore) phase was observed for compositions near the morphotropic phase boundary (x∼0.54). Polycrystalline PZT films which were 70%–90% PZT were also deposited on Pt coated Si and GaAs under similar conditions.
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81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)
81.15.-z Methods of deposition of films and coatings; film growth and epitaxy

Formation of titanium and zirconium nitrides by mechanical alloying

A. Calka

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 1568 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106285 (2 pages) | Cited 39 times

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Using a novel ball mill with controlled ball movement, titanium and zirconium nitrides were synthesized by simple milling, at room temperature, of titanium and zirconium elemental powders in molecular nitrogen atmosphere. The structural evolution during milling is studied using x‐ray diffractometry.
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81.05.Bx Metals, semimetals, and alloys
62.20.-x Mechanical properties of solids
81.20.Ev Powder processing: powder metallurgy, compaction, sintering, mechanical alloying, and granulation
81.40.-z Treatment of materials and its effects on microstructure, nanostructure, and properties

Mechanisms of phase transitions in ion‐doped silicon layers

A. B. Danilin and V. N. Mordkovich

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 1570 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106286 (2 pages) | Cited 4 times

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A model is suggested for amorphization of Si layers under ion bombardment and also for recrystallization of amorphous layers subjected to heat or radiation‐heat treatment. The model is based on regularities governing the kinetics of solid‐phase chemical reactions. The amorphization rate is shown to be determined by the divacancy formation rate, while the recrystallization rate by the rate of formation of Si two‐atoms complexes at the amorphous layer‐crystal matrix interface.
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64.70.K- Solid-solid transitions
61.72.uf Ge and Si
61.72.sd Impurity concentration
61.72.sh Impurity distribution
61.72.sm Impurity gradients
81.40.Ef Cold working, work hardening; annealing, post-deformation annealing, quenching, tempering recovery, and crystallization

Quantum corrections to ultrafast thermalization in binary/ternary double heterostructures

R. P. Joshi

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 1572 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106287 (3 pages) | Cited 1 time

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A Monte Carlo study of transient electronic thermalization in double heterostructures following femtosecond laser excitation is presented. Quantum corrections arising from the short time scales of interest have been explicitly incorporated into the simulations. These include the effects of collisional broadening to account for the finite lifetime of the interactions, and of finite collision durations that retard the thermalization process and impart a nonlocal time dependence to the scattering rates. Details of the phonon modes supported by the binary/ternary quantum‐well structures have also been carefully included. Results at low‐carrier densities demonstrate that adequate inclusion of the finite collision durations is necessary for an accurate transient analysis.
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72.20.Dp General theory, scattering mechanisms
73.21.-b Electron states and collective excitations in multilayers, quantum wells, mesoscopic, and nanoscale systems
71.55.Eq III-V semiconductors
72.10.Bg General formulation of transport theory

N‐channel enhancement mode field‐effect transistors in Hg1−xCdxTe grown by organometallic epitaxy (direct alloy growth process)

I. B. Bhat, K. K. Parat, H. Ehsani, and S. K. Ghandhi

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 1575 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106288 (3 pages)

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N‐channel metal‐insulator semiconductor field‐effect transistors were fabricated in Hg1−xCdxTe layers grown by the organometallic vapor phase epitaxy, using the direct alloy growth technique. As‐grown layers, which were p type due to Group II vacancies, were used as the starting material. Then n‐type source and drain regions were formed using a planar process for selective annealing of the Hg1−xCdxTe. The gate insulator consisted of 200 Å of native anodic sulfide followed by 2500 Å of thermally evaporated zinc sulfide. Indium was used as the gate metal. Details of device fabrication and characteristics are described here.
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85.30.De Semiconductor-device characterization, design, and modeling
85.30.Tv Field effect devices
73.40.Qv Metal-insulator-semiconductor structures (including semiconductor-to-insulator)
81.15.Kk Vapor phase epitaxy; growth from vapor phase

Effect of midgap states in intrinsic hydrogenated amorphous silicon on sub‐band‐gap photoconductivity

S. Lee, M. Gunes, C. R. Wronski, N. Maley, and M. Bennett

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 1578 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106289 (3 pages) | Cited 20 times

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Photoconductivities, generated by photon energies less than the optical gap, in intrinsic hydrogenated amorphous silicon were measured over a wide range of carrier generation rates. Detailed numerical analysis of the corresponding sub‐band‐gap absorption was used to model the nature, densities, and distribution of midgap states. These derived gap state parameters are consistent with the electron lifetimes and their dependence on the generation rates. The analysis shows how the spectral response of the sub‐band‐gap photoconductivity (absorption) depends not only on the densities of midgap states but also on their location relative to the band edges. The position of these defect states can be obtained from sub‐band‐gap photoconductivity measurements providing that the corresponding occupation by electrons is taken into account.
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73.50.Gr Charge carriers: generation, recombination, lifetime, trapping, mean free paths
73.61.Ng Insulators
72.80.Ng Disordered solids

A physical model for boron penetration through an oxynitride gate dielectric prepared by rapid thermal processing in N2O

Hyunsang Hwang, Wenchi Ting, Dim‐Lee Kwong, and Jack Lee

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 1581 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106290 (2 pages) | Cited 9 times

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In this paper a physical model is presented for boron penetration through an oxynitride gate dielectric prepared by rapid thermal processing in a nitrous oxide (N2O) ambient. Compared with a conventional rapid thermally grown oxide, oxynitride dielectrics show excellent diffusion barrier properties to the dopant (BF2). The Auger electron spectroscopy nitrogen depth profile shows nitrogen pileup at the Si/SiO2 interface, which may explain the lower segregation coefficient (≊20 times lower) of the oxynitride dielectric, as expected from suprem‐iii simulation with modified diffusivity values.
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77.55.-g Dielectric thin films
68.35.Fx Diffusion; interface formation

Simple integral screenprinting process for selective emitter polycrystalline silicon solar cells

J. Szlufcik, H. E. Elgamel, M. Ghannam, J. Nijs, and R. Mertens

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 1583 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106291 (2 pages) | Cited 3 times

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This letter describes a new simple fabrication process, developed recently for ‘‘blue response’’ improvement in low‐cost polycrystalline silicon solar cells. A selective emitter is created by heavily doping the emitter, followed by a wet etching‐back of the cell area between the fingers. An improvement up to 17 mV in Voc, 1.5 mA/cm2 in Jsc, and 1% (absolute value) in η is obtained. Effective phosphorus gettering, self‐alignment, and application in a low‐cost full screenprinting technology are the main advantages of the proposed process.
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85.40.Hp Lithography, masks and pattern transfer
84.60.Jt Photoelectric conversion

Dependence of misfit dislocation velocities upon growth technique and oxygen content in strained GexSi1−x/Si(100) heterostructures

R. Hull, J. C. Bean, D. Noble, J. Hoyt, and J. F. Gibbons

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 1585 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106292 (3 pages) | Cited 8 times

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Misfit dislocation velocities in strained GexSi1−x/Si(100) heterostructures are compared for layers grown by molecular beam epitaxy and limited reaction processing. We demonstrate that velocities are substantially lower in structures with oxygen concentrations ∼1020 cm−3 compared to layers with oxygen concentrations ∼1018 cm−3. For layers with the lower oxygen concentration, the sample growth technique does not appear to be a significant factor affecting misfit dislocation velocity.
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61.72.Yx Interaction between different crystal defects; gettering effect
61.72.Ff Direct observation of dislocations and other defects (etch pits, decoration, electron microscopy, x-ray topography, etc.)
68.55.Ln Defects and impurities: doping, implantation, distribution, concentration, etc.

Observation of the InP surface thermally cleaned in an arsenic flux using a scanning tunneling microscope

Shunsuke Ohkouchi and Ichiro Tanaka

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 1588 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106294 (3 pages) | Cited 17 times

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An InP surface thermally cleaned in an arsenic flux was observed using an ultrahigh‐vacuum scanning tunneling microscope (UHV‐STM). In the STM image, about 1.6 nm period lines of 0.8 nm width with two rows were observed along the [110] direction. This result suggests that the surface comprises two In‐In dimers and two missing dimers per (4×2) cells.
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81.65.-b Surface treatments
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
68.35.B- Structure of clean surfaces (and surface reconstruction)

CdTe‐Cd1−xMnxTe multiple quantum well structures grown by pulsed laser evaporation and epitaxy

J. J. Dubowski, A. P. Roth, Z. R. Wasilewski, and S. J. Rolfe

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 1591 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106265 (3 pages) | Cited 5 times

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Structural and optical properties of (001) CdTe‐Cd1−xMnxTe (x=0.10) multiple quantum well structures grown by pulsed laser evaporation and epitaxy (PLEE) are investigated. The layers are grown on (001) CdZnTe wafers held at a temperature in the range of 210–230 °C. Secondary‐ion mass spectroscopy in‐depth profiles reveal that highly uniform structures are grown. Numerical analysis of double crystal x‐ray diffraction results demonstrates high structural quality of the layers and indicates partial relaxation of the strain in these structures. Low‐temperature photoluminescence exhibits excitonic recombinations in the CdTe wells whereas photoluminescence from the Cd1−xMnxTe barriers is not observed. The chemical composition of the barriers deduced from photoluminescence is in excellent agreement with the intended chemical composition set during growth.
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81.15.Kk Vapor phase epitaxy; growth from vapor phase
78.20.-e Optical properties of bulk materials and thin films
78.66.Fd III-V semiconductors
78.66.Hf II-VI semiconductors
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