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21 Oct 1991

Volume 59, Issue 17, pp. 2067-2194

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Tunable narrow‐band Nd3+ fiber laser

Hendrik Sabert

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 2067 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106132 (3 pages) | Cited 1 time

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In a linear Nd3+ fiber laser, spatial hole burning is eliminated by frequency shifters at the ends of the cavity. They introduce a frequency difference of 160 MHz between the two counterpropagating waves. The laser operates spontaneously and stable on a single longitudinal mode with ≊12 kHz bandwidth near 1088 nm. Tuning over 16.5 nm is achieved by two piezoelectrically driven etalons.
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42.60.Da Resonators, cavities, amplifiers, arrays, and rings
42.81.Wg Other fiber-optical devices

Theoretical studies of the applications of resonant tunneling diodes as intersubband laser and interband excitonic modulators

J. P. Loehr, J. Singh, R. K. Mains, and G. I. Haddad

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 2070 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106133 (3 pages) | Cited 12 times

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We present a theoretical analysis of the optical applications of resonant tunneling diodes. The electronic properties are calculated with a self‐consistent traveling‐wave model that includes effective‐mass mismatches. The interband optical properties are calculated from a 4×4 k⋅p band structure in the dipole approximation. We find that it is possible to operate a conventional device as an intersubband laser if the transition energy is large (∼0.5 eV) and the linewidth in minimal (∼5 meV). A bound‐state device can produce a modulation ratio of 5:1 at the excitonic peak with an absorption length of ∼ 40 μm in a waveguide geometry.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
73.40.Gk Tunneling
78.66.Fd III-V semiconductors
78.66.Hf II-VI semiconductors
85.30.Mn Junction breakdown and tunneling devices (including resonance tunneling devices)

Low threshold, 290 fs erbium‐doped fiber laser with a nonlinear amplifying loop mirror pumped by InGaAsP laser diodes

Masataka Nakazawa, Eiji Yoshida, and Yasuo Kimura

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 2073 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106134 (3 pages) | Cited 27 times

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290 fs soliton pulses at 1.56 μm have been successfully obtained for the first time from a laser‐diode pumped erbium‐doped fiber laser with a nonlinear amplifying loop mirror. The laser was pumped by InGaAsP laser diodes and the threshold for starting the pulse oscillation was 50 mW. The passive mode‐locking continued to a pump power level as low as 10 mW. The repetition rate was uncontrollable and varied between the fundamental repetition rate of 5 MHz and 1.2–2 GHz.
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42.60.Fc Modulation, tuning, and mode locking
42.60.Da Resonators, cavities, amplifiers, arrays, and rings
42.65.Re Ultrafast processes; optical pulse generation and pulse compression
42.81.Wg Other fiber-optical devices

Sub‐100 femtosecond pulses from an external‐cavity surface‐emitting InGaAs/InP multiple quantum well laser with soliton‐effect compression

W. H. Xiang, S. R. Friberg, K. Watanabe, S. Machida, Y. Sakai, H. Iwamura, and Y. Yamamoto

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 2076 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106135 (3 pages) | Cited 9 times

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We have compressed strongly chirped optical pulses from a synchronously pumped In0.53Ga0.47As/InP multiple quantum well surface‐emitting laser operating with an external cavity. The pulses, initially exhibiting a strong up‐chirp with a time‐bandwidth product of more than 100 times the Fourier transform limit, were compressed to 77 fs using dispersion and soliton compression in a negative group‐velocity‐dispersion fiber. Chirp compensation using a diffraction grating pair followed by soliton compression in a fiber gave pulses as short as 21 fs.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.60.Fc Modulation, tuning, and mode locking
42.55.Rz Doped-insulator lasers and other solid state lasers
42.81.Wg Other fiber-optical devices

Vertical‐cavity surface‐emitting laser diodes fabricated by phase‐locked epitaxy

J. D. Walker, D. M. Kuchta, and J. S. Smith

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 2079 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106414 (3 pages) | Cited 17 times

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We report 10 mW cw room‐temperature operation of an electrically pumped vertical‐cavity surface‐emitting laser diode without a heat sink. This same laser produces 19 mW cw when cooled slightly below room temperature. In addition, we present a 9 mW cw laser with a threshold voltage of 1.6 V, and series resistance of 18 Ω. These are the first surface‐emitting lasers fabricated by phase‐locked epitaxy. They are also believed to be the highest power and lowest threshold voltage electrically pumped vertical‐cavity structures reported to date. These results establish that phase‐locked epitaxy has important applications in the fabrication of surface‐emitting lasers and many other structures with similar materials requirements.
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42.60.By Design of specific laser systems
42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
85.60.Jb Light-emitting devices

Polarization switching in spun birefringent fiber

P. Ferro, M. Haelterman, S. Trillo, S. Wabnitz, and B. Daino

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 2082 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106139 (3 pages) | Cited 4 times

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We have experimentally observed the relatively low‐power self‐switching of polarization ellipticity along the profile of initially circularly polarized picosecond pulses in a spun birefringent fiber. The switching and pulse breakup effects originate from the intensity‐dependent modulation of the birefringence beat length.
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42.65.Pc Optical bistability, multistability, and switching, including local field effects
42.79.Ta Optical computers, logic elements, interconnects, switches; neural networks
42.81.Gs Birefringence, polarization

High‐power cw operation of InGaAs/GaAs surface‐emitting lasers with 45° intracavity micro‐mirrors

S. S. Ou, M. Jansen, J. J. Yang, L. J. Mawst, and T. J. Roth

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 2085 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106140 (3 pages) | Cited 2 times

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High‐power cw operation of horizontal‐cavity, monolithic InGaAs/GaAs surface‐emitting lasers with all dry etched micro‐mirrors has been demonstrated for the first time. The 45° and 90° micro‐mirrors of the devices were fabricated by ion‐beam etching and reactive ion etching techniques, respectively. Threshold‐current densities of less than 500 A/cm2, external differential quantum efficiencies of 10% (0.12 W/A) from the emitting facet, and output powers in excess of 100 mW were achieved from uncoated devices driven under cw operation.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.60.Da Resonators, cavities, amplifiers, arrays, and rings
81.65.-b Surface treatments

Ion‐irradiation control of photoluminescence from porous silicon

J. C. Barbour, D. Dimos, T. R. Guilinger, M. J. Kelly, and S. S. Tsao

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 2088 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106141 (3 pages) | Cited 27 times

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Ion irradiation was used to pattern a region of red‐light emitting porous silicon by eliminating visible‐light photoluminescence (PL). The PL peak wavelength is approximately 735 nm and shows little dependence on the excitation‐light wavelength. The ratio of PL intensities for different excitation wavelengths was shown to be proportional to the ratio of the absorption coefficients. Below saturation, the integrated PL intensity increased linearly with excitation‐light power density.
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78.55.Hx Other solid inorganic materials
61.80.Jh Ion radiation effects
81.40.Tv Optical and dielectric properties related to treatment conditions

Capacitively coupled glow discharges at frequencies above 13.56 MHz

M. Surendra and D. B. Graves

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 2091 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106112 (3 pages) | Cited 76 times

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Particle‐in‐cell/Monte Carlo simulations of glow discharges between parallel plate electrodes indicate that operation at frequencies above 13.56 MHz offers a number of attractive features for plasma processing applications. Plasma density and ion current scale approximately as the square of frequency, but maximum ion energy is unaffected to first order when applied voltage, pressure and electrode spacing remain constant. In addition, raising frequency decreases sheath thickness, thereby increasing ion directionality in the sheath at constant pressure. By manipulating both frequency and rf voltage, it is possible to control ion current and energy independently.
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52.80.Pi High-frequency and RF discharges
52.65.-y Plasma simulation

Vacuum field emission from a Si‐TaSi2 semiconductor‐metal eutectic composite

D. A. Kirkpatrick, G. L. Bergeron, M. A. Czarnaski, J. J. Hickman, M. Levinson, Q. V. Nguyen, and B. M. Ditchek

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 2094 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106113 (3 pages) | Cited 5 times

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We report on measurements of vacuum field emission from ungated field emission cathode arrays fabricated from Si‐TaSi2 eutectic composite wafers. The Si‐TaSi2 material is an ideal candidate for large area field emission array cathodes due to the large density of TaSi2 fibers incorporated into the Si matrix, the high melting point of the TaSi2 material, the ease with which single‐crystal large diameter (2.5 cm) material can be fabricated, and the promise of integrability of the field emission array with conventional Si technology through the use of epitaxial Si layers grown on the cathode backplane.
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79.70.+q Field emission, ionization, evaporation, and desorption
41.75.Fr Electron and positron beams
73.40.Sx Metal-semiconductor-metal structures
73.30.+y Surface double layers, Schottky barriers, and work functions

Epitaxial growth of aluminum nitride on Si(111) by reactive sputtering

W. J. Meng, J. Heremans, and Y. T. Cheng

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 2097 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106092 (3 pages) | Cited 53 times

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We have studied growth of aluminum nitride (AlN) on Si(111) by ultra‐high vacuum (UHV) reactive dc‐magnetron sputtering under a mixture of Ar and N2 gases. As‐grown films have been examined by x‐ray diffraction, Auger electron spectroscopy (AES), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Results of x‐ray diffraction show texturing with AlN [0001]//Si[111]. Complementary TEM examinations observe epitaxy of AlN on Si(111), with AlN[1120]//Si[220]. The AlN/Si interface is sharp and flat. The lowest substrate temperature required to achieve epitaxy Tepi has been determined to be ∼600 °C. A dislocation density in AlN film grown at 700 °C has been estimated to be ∼3×1011/cm2.
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81.15.Cd Deposition by sputtering
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology

X‐ray reflectivity measurements of the expansion of carbon films upon annealing

C. A. Lucas, T. D. Nguyen, and J. B. Kortright

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 2100 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106093 (3 pages) | Cited 27 times

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Measurements have been made of the x‐ray reflectivity from ultrathin, amorphous carbon films both before and after annealing. Analysis of the x‐ray results indicates that annealing causes an increase in film thickness with a corresponding decrease in density. Such behavior is uncharacteristic of amorphous thin films and is interpreted as being due to changes in the interatomic bonding associated with transition to a more graphitic microstructure.
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61.05.cf X-ray scattering (including small-angle scattering)
61.05.cj X-ray absorption spectroscopy: EXAFS, NEXAFS, XANES, etc.
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
61.66.Bi Elemental solids
61.66.Dk Alloys

Self‐limitation in the surface segregation of Ge atoms during Si molecular beam epitaxial growth

S. Fukatsu, K. Fujita, H. Yaguchi, Y. Shiraki, and R. Ito

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 2103 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106412 (3 pages) | Cited 117 times

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Self‐limitation in the surface segregation of Ge atoms in the Si epitaxial overlayers arising from the surface bond geometry on Si(100) during molecular beam epitaxy has been investigated theoretically. It was found that Ge surface segregation is strongly limiting when the Ge concentration exceeds 0.01 monolayer. As a result of this self‐limitation, segregation profiles of Ge in Si overlayers are found to decay nonexponentially in the growth direction with a kink in the profile around 3×1020 cm−3, which is in close agreement with the experimental observation. The kinetic barrier of the Ge surface segregation is estimated to be 1.63±0.1 eV.
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68.65.-k Low-dimensional, mesoscopic, nanoscale and other related systems: structure and nonelectronic properties
61.66.Fn Inorganic compounds
81.15.Hi Molecular, atomic, ion, and chemical beam epitaxy

Method for predicting microsegregation‐free solidification with application to Ag‐Cu alloys

E. Y. Yankov, M. I. Yankova, S. M. Copley, and J. A. Todd

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 2106 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106094 (3 pages) | Cited 2 times

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Melting the surface of Ag‐Cu specimens with a laser or electron beam produces a variety of microstructures, the most interesting being a banded structure. In this letter we present a method, based on the interface response functions for solidification developed by Aziz and Kaplan [Acta Metall. 36, 2335 (1988)], for calculating the scanning velocity of the beam needed to bypass the banded structure and solidify the alloy in a microsegregation‐free manner. When this velocity has been determined experimentally, as in the present Ag‐Cu system, the width of the solid‐liquid interface can be estimated.
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81.30.Bx Phase diagrams of metals, alloys, and oxides
81.40.Ef Cold working, work hardening; annealing, post-deformation annealing, quenching, tempering recovery, and crystallization
68.35.Md Surface thermodynamics, surface energies

Deposition and characterization of fullerene films

A. F. Hebard, R. C. Haddon, R. M. Fleming, and A. R. Kortan

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 2109 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106095 (3 pages) | Cited 172 times

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Thermal sublimation of pure C60 and C70 has been used for depositing well‐characterized fullerene films on a variety of substrates. Film purity is determined by infrared absorption spectra and the extent of crystallinity of the face‐centered cubic structure by x rays. Thickness‐dependent optical and electrical measurements reveal uniform films over the thickness range 200–1000 Å. We obtain optical absorption coefficients having values between those of Si and Ge and a relative permittivity having a value close to that of amorphous SiO2.
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81.15.-z Methods of deposition of films and coatings; film growth and epitaxy
73.61.Ng Insulators
78.66.-w Optical properties of specific thin films
78.67.-n Optical properties of low-dimensional, mesoscopic, and nanoscale materials and structures

Phonon‐defect scattering in high thermal conductivity diamond films

Donald T. Morelli, Thomas M. Hartnett, and Clifford J. Robinson

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 2112 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106096 (3 pages) | Cited 33 times

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We have investigated the thermal conductivity of large diamond samples grown by both hot filament and microwave plasma assisted chemical vapor deposition in order to study in detail the processes limiting heat conduction in this system. For samples containing nearly 100% diamond material and no apparent defects, the thermal conductivity is consistent with that expected for polycrystalline diamond with a given crystallite size. In films prepared by the hot filament technique, we observe an additional scattering of phonons near 60 K, which we attribute to either a resonant phonon‐defect interaction, or a crossover from geometrical to Rayleigh phonon‐defect scattering.
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66.70.-f Nonelectronic thermal conduction and heat-pulse propagation in solids; thermal waves
63.20.kp Phonon-defect interactions
81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)
85.50.-n Dielectric, ferroelectric, and piezoelectric devices

Effect of laser irradiation on carbon implanted copper substrates

Rajiv K. Singh

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 2115 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106097 (3 pages) | Cited 2 times

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We have analyzed the nonequilibrium thermal effects of pulsed nanosecond lasers on carbon implanted copper substrates. The thermal effects of pulsed nanosecond lasers on carbon doped copper substrates were simulated by numerically solving the one‐dimensional heat flow equation and taking into account the phase changes which occur at the surface, and temperature and time dependent thermal and optical properties of the irradiated solid. Intense pulsed laser irradiation induces rapid heating at the near‐surface resulting in melting, followed by rapid quenching of the melt phase. The effect of laser variables (energy density, pulse duration) on the maximum melt depth, melt‐in and solidification velocities and transient temperature profiles have been computed. The melting threshold was found to be approximately 1.40 J/cm2 for 15‐ns laser pulses, and increased to approximately 2.5 J/cm2 for 50‐ns laser pulses. Maximum melt depths and the surface temperatures were found to increase approximately in a linear manner with pulse energy density. Extremely high average solidification velocities (20–45 m/s) were calculated which may give rise to solute trapping and other nonequilibrium segregation effects.
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81.15.Kk Vapor phase epitaxy; growth from vapor phase
81.15.Jj Ion and electron beam-assisted deposition; ion plating
81.10.Bk Growth from vapor

Evidence for quantum confinement in the photoluminescence of porous Si and SiGe

S. Gardelis, J. S. Rimmer, P. Dawson, B. Hamilton, R. A. Kubiak, T. E. Whall, and E. H. C. Parker

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 2118 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106098 (3 pages) | Cited 110 times

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We have used anodization techniques to process porous surface regions in p‐type Czochralski Si and in p‐type Si0.85Ge0.15 epitaxial layers grown by molecular beam epitaxy. The SiGe layers were unrelaxed before processing. We have observed strong near‐infrared and visible light emission from both systems. Analysis of the radiative and nonradiative recombination processes indicate that the emission is consistent with the decay of excitons localized in structures of one or zero dimensions.
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78.66.-w Optical properties of specific thin films
71.35.-y Excitons and related phenomena
78.55.Hx Other solid inorganic materials
81.65.-b Surface treatments

Passivation of shallow impurities in Si by annealing in H2 at high temperature

I. A. Veloarisoa, Michael Stavola, D. M. Kozuch, R. E. Peale, and G. D. Watkins

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 2121 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106099 (3 pages) | Cited 28 times

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We have found by infrared absorption that shallow acceptors in Si can be passivated throughout the bulk of a semiconductor sample several mm thick by annealing in H2 at high temperature (≳900 °C) and quenching to room temperature. The total number of shallow centers passivated in such samples is comparable to the number in highly doped surface layers passivated in a hydrogen plasma at lower temperature (typically <400 °C). The importance of bulk passivation techniques is discussed.
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78.30.-j Infrared and Raman spectra
78.40.Fy Semiconductors
61.72.Bb Theories and models of crystal defects

Radical‐assisted organometallic vapor‐phase epitaxial growth of GaAs

S. H. Li, C. H. Chen, D. H. Jaw, and G. B. Stringfellow

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 2124 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106100 (3 pages) | Cited 5 times

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For the first time, radicals have been added to assist organometallic vapor‐phase epitaxial (OMVPE) growth of GaAs at low temperatures. Supplemental t‐C4H9 radicals from the pyrolysis of azo‐t‐butane [(t‐C4H9)2N2] were used to increase the growth rate of GaAs from trimethylgallium [TMGa, (CH3)3Ga] and arsine (AsH3) at temperatures as low as 390 °C. Mass spectroscopy studies show that the added radicals enhance the decomposition rates of both TMGa and AsH3. The GaAs growth rate was increased by a factor of 6 at 450 °C. The radical‐assisted OMVPE grown samples are, indeed, GaAs based on microprobe analysis. Spectra from Raman scattering experiments further confirm that the GaAs is single crystalline.
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81.15.Kk Vapor phase epitaxy; growth from vapor phase
81.10.Bk Growth from vapor
82.30.Lp Decomposition reactions (pyrolysis, dissociation, and fragmentation)

3.06 μm InGaAsSb/InPSb diode lasers grown by organometallic vapor‐phase epitaxy

R. J. Menna, D. R. Capewell, Ramon U. Martinelli, P. K. York, and R. E. Enstrom

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 2127 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106101 (3 pages) | Cited 32 times

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We have observed laser action at λ=3.06 μm in In0.77Ga0.23As0.74Sb0.26/InP0.7Sb0.3 double heterojunction, diode lasers, which were grown by organometallic vapor‐phase epitaxy. The maximum operating temperature was T=35 K, and typical threshold current densities were 200–330 A/cm2. At temperatures up to 35 K, the lasing wavelength decreased with increasing temperature owing to a band‐filling effect.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
81.15.Kk Vapor phase epitaxy; growth from vapor phase
85.30.De Semiconductor-device characterization, design, and modeling

Doping effect of oxygen or nitrogen impurity in hydrogenated amorphous silicon films

Akiharu Morimoto, Minoru Matsumoto, Masahiro Yoshita, Minoru Kumeda, and Tatsuo Shimizu

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 2130 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106102 (3 pages) | Cited 23 times

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O, N, or C impurity was separately incorporated into a‐Si:H films by hot‐wall glow discharge decomposition. The effect of the impurity incorporation was investigated by electrical and electron spin resonance measurements. Both O and N impurities were found to increase the dark conductivity by decreasing its activation energy in a‐Si:H films. Furthermore, it was found that O and N impurities delay the photoresponse. C impurity, however, has no appreciable effect on them. These findings suggest that O and N impurities shift the Fermi level upward and form a trapping state for photoexcited electrons, supporting our O+3 and N+4 model.
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71.23.An Theories and models; localized states
72.80.Ng Disordered solids
73.20.Hb Impurity and defect levels; energy states of adsorbed species

Annealing and profile of interstitial iron in boron‐doped silicon

X. Gao, H. Mollenkopf, and S. Yee

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 2133 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106103 (3 pages) | Cited 7 times

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Deep level transient spectroscopy and double correlation technique were used to examine the annealing and profiles of interstitial iron in boron‐doped silicon at a temperature range from 50 to 400 °C. The results show that iron‐boron pairs begin to break‐up at a temperature as low as 50 °C. After a short time annealing (5 min) at a temperature up to 400 °C, most of the iron from the breaking is converted into interstitial iron. We also find that the distribution of interstitial iron under the silicon surface is not uniform, and it depends on the annealing time and temperature. The interstitial iron near the silicon surface decreases with the increase of the annealing time.
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61.72.Bb Theories and models of crystal defects
61.72.sd Impurity concentration
61.72.sh Impurity distribution
61.72.sm Impurity gradients
71.55.Ht Other nonmetals
81.40.Rs Electrical and magnetic properties related to treatment conditions

Writing electronically active nanometer‐scale structures with a scanning tunneling microscope

E. Hartmann, R. J. Behm, G. Krötz, G. Müller, and F. Koch

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 2136 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106104 (3 pages) | Cited 11 times

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A scanning tunneling microscope (STM) is used to locally modify p‐n junctions on a scale of a few tens of nanometers. The p‐n junction is composed of a phosphorus‐doped, hydrogenated amorphous Si [a‐Si:H(P)] layer deposited on heavily doped p‐type crystalline Si(111). Under conditions of high current densities, with the p‐n junction biased in forward direction, the a‐Si:H layer is structurally changed leading to a decrease of the junction barrier height. The resulting exponential increase of hole injection into the modified amorphous layer leads to electronically active structures. They are detected by STM owing to their differing electronic properties.
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73.40.Lq Other semiconductor-to-semiconductor contacts, p-n junctions, and heterojunctions
07.79.Cz Scanning tunneling microscopes
61.05.-a Techniques for structure determination
72.80.Ng Disordered solids

Optical detection of light‐ and heavy‐hole resonant tunneling in p‐type resonant tunneling structures

C. Van Hoof, G. Borghs, and E. Goovaerts

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 2139 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106105 (3 pages) | Cited 6 times

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Photoluminescence of operational AlAs‐GaAs‐AlAs double‐barrier resonant tunneling structures with p‐type contact layers reveals the charging and subsequent discharging of the hole subbands in the quantum well by sequential resonant tunneling throughout the region of the first three hole resonances. The linewidth of the quantum well luminescence shows free‐carrier broadening at each of the resonances. Accumulation and tunneling of photocreated electrons are also prominent.
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78.66.Fd III-V semiconductors
78.66.Hf II-VI semiconductors
78.55.Cr III-V semiconductors
73.21.-b Electron states and collective excitations in multilayers, quantum wells, mesoscopic, and nanoscale systems
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