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29 Jul 1991

Volume 59, Issue 5, pp. 497-613

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Highly sensitive NpnP optoelectronic switch by AlAs regrowth

M. Kuijk, P. Heremans, and G. Borghs

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 497 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.105418 (2 pages) | Cited 6 times

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A double‐heterostructure NpnP optoelectronic switching device, with an extreme optical sensitivity and low holding power, has been fabricated. A decrease in breakover voltage of 650 mV is obtained at a light illumination of only 5 nW for a 50×50 μm2 device. To achieve this high sensitivity, the surface generation/recombination currents at the edges of the devices have been reduced by passivating the device perimeter with a regrowth of 50 nm AlAs (lowly p doped).
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85.60.-q Optoelectronic devices
42.79.Ta Optical computers, logic elements, interconnects, switches; neural networks
85.60.Jb Light-emitting devices
42.65.Pc Optical bistability, multistability, and switching, including local field effects

Effects of nonlinear gain on four‐wave mixing and asymmetric gain saturation in a semiconductor laser amplifier

L. F. Tiemeijer

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 499 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.105419 (3 pages) | Cited 46 times

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Nearly degenerate four‐wave mixing (NDFWM) and asymmetric gain saturation were studied in a 1.5 μm InGaAsP semiconductor laser amplifier at highly saturated conditions (Pout ≫ Psat) and frequency separations up to 500 GHz. Apart from modulation of the carrier density the data reveal a new mechanism of NDFWM with a characteristic time of about 650 fs which takes over when the frequency separation exceeds 100 GHz.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.65.Ky Frequency conversion; harmonic generation, including higher-order harmonic generation
42.60.Fc Modulation, tuning, and mode locking

Third‐order nonlinear optical susceptibilities of electroconductive oxide thin films

Naoyuki Ueda, Hiroshi Kawazoe, Yuichi Watanabe, Masasuke Takata, Masayuki Yamane, and Ken’ichi Kubodera

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 502 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.105420 (2 pages) | Cited 12 times

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Third‐order nonlinear optical susceptibilities (χ(3)) were estimated by third‐harmonic generation for some electroconductive oxide thin films with wide band gaps (∼3.5 eV). Tin dioxide (SnO2) films showed the highest χ(3) as 3.8×10−12 esu, which is comparable with that of polydiacethylene (PDA) casting films that possess conjugated π electron systems.
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42.65.Ky Frequency conversion; harmonic generation, including higher-order harmonic generation
42.70.-a Optical materials
78.66.-w Optical properties of specific thin films

Evidence of the wavelength switching caused by a blocked carrier transport in an asymmetric dual quantum well laser

Sotomitsu Ikeda and Akira Shimizu

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 504 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.105421 (3 pages) | Cited 18 times

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The mechanism of wavelength switching in an asymmetric dual quantum well laser was investigated. Switching between 830 and 780 nm was achieved, with increasing injection current under cw as well as under pulsed operation. This is the widest switching range of monolithic LDs under cw operation ever reported. Time‐resolved spectra for the dual‐wavelength simultaneous lasing under short‐pulse operation show that emissions at the two wavelengths have a time difference. This provides evidence that holes are inhomogeneously injected into the two wells with a time difference and that their dynamics govern the lasing for each wavelength and the switching.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.55.Rz Doped-insulator lasers and other solid state lasers
73.50.Gr Charge carriers: generation, recombination, lifetime, trapping, mean free paths

Magnetless Faraday rotator of (BiY)3Fe5O12 waveguide with stripe magnetic domains

Kaoru Matsuda and Tadashi Narusawa

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 507 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106387 (3 pages) | Cited 4 times

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We propose and demonstrate a magnetless Faraday rotator of a (BiY)3Fe5O12 waveguide with stripe magnetic domains. It has a potential application to compact optical isolators. The specific Faraday rotation angle of −150 deg/cm and the extinction ratio of 13 dB are obtained without a magnet.
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42.79.Gn Optical waveguides and couplers
78.20.Ls Magneto-optical effects
42.82.-m Integrated optics
85.70.Sq Magnetooptical devices

Self‐quasi‐phase‐matched second‐harmonic generation in the proton‐exchanged LiNbO3 optical waveguide with periodically domain‐inverted regions

K. Shinozaki, T. Fukunaga, K. Watanabe, and T. Kamijoh

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 510 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.105422 (3 pages) | Cited 8 times

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A self‐quasi‐phase matching technique for second‐harmonic generation (SHG) that uses a proton‐exchanged LiNbO3 optical waveguide with periodically domain‐inverted regions is proposed and demonstrated. The fundamental wave satisfying quasi‐phase‐matching (QPM) condition was generated by an InP/InGaAsP laser diode (LD) with antireflection coated facets which was optically connected to the LiNbO3 waveguide. As the domain‐inverted regions in the optical waveguide act as the distributed Bragg reflector (DBR), the LD is lased by the feedback waves from the DBR. We designed the period of domain‐inverted regions to satisfy the QPM conditions and the high‐reflectance conditions of the fundamental wave. We confirmed that the LD was lased at the wavelength satisfying the QPM conditions and SHG was observed simultaneously.
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42.65.Ky Frequency conversion; harmonic generation, including higher-order harmonic generation
42.60.Da Resonators, cavities, amplifiers, arrays, and rings
42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.79.Gn Optical waveguides and couplers

Surface skimming buried heterostructure laser with applications to optoelectronic integration

Robert L. Thornton, William J. Mosby, and Harlan F. Chung

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 513 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.105423 (3 pages) | Cited 2 times

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We demonstrate the ability to fabricate low‐threshold current buried heterostructure lasers with the critical active layers in close proximity to the surface of the laser crystal. These structures readily lend themselves to applications involving optical field interactions on the surface of the crystal. We further demonstrate the compatibility of these structures with lateral heterojunction bipolar transistor fabrication.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.82.-m Integrated optics
85.30.Pq Bipolar transistors
85.60.Jb Light-emitting devices

Second‐harmonic generation of blue light in LiNbO3 crystal with periodic ferroelectric domain structures

Ya‐lin Lu, Lun Mao, Shi‐de Cheng, Nai‐ben Ming, and Yu‐tian Lu

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 516 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.105424 (3 pages) | Cited 38 times

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A LiNbO3 crystal with periodic laminar ferroelectric domain structures (460 domains) was used to generate 430 and 435 nm radiation by quasi‐phase‐matched frequency doubling at room temperature. Blue light output of 0.2 μJ energy was measured for input energy 5 μJ of fundamental wave in pulse operation.
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42.65.Ky Frequency conversion; harmonic generation, including higher-order harmonic generation
81.10.Fq Growth from melts; zone melting and refining
78.66.-w Optical properties of specific thin films

Investigation of KTiOPO4 as an electro‐optic amplitude modulator

X. D. Wang, P. Basséras, R. J. Dwayne Miller, and Herman Vanherzeele

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 519 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.105425 (3 pages) | Cited 20 times

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We report on an experimental study of a hydrothermally grown KTiOPO4 (KTP) Pockels cell, utilizing the effective electro‐optic coefficient, rc1=28 pm/V. Compensation of the static birefringence of KTP, when it is used as amplitude modulator, has been achieved by temperature tuning. Our study revealed that a KTP Pockels cell does not suffer from piezoelectric‐induced parasitics (acoustic ringing). Stable high‐repetition rate pulse slicing has been obtained at 30 kHz. Intracavity use of a KTP Pockels cell also has been successfully demonstrated in a Q‐switched Nd:YLF laser system.
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42.79.Hp Optical processors, correlators, and modulators
78.20.Jq Electro-optical effects
42.60.Fc Modulation, tuning, and mode locking
42.65.Ky Frequency conversion; harmonic generation, including higher-order harmonic generation

Thermodynamics of facet damage in cleaved AlGaAs lasers

A. Moser

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 522 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.105426 (3 pages) | Cited 14 times

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The time dependence of catastrophic optical mirror damage (COMD) is investigated for the cw operation of AlGaAs quantum well lasers with cleaved unprotected and protected mirrors. Based on the rate equation for a COMD failure it is found that facet heating leading to COMD depends on the quantum wells and on the reflectivity modification of the protected mirrors. The investigations show that control of damage in the mirror region of the AlGaAs lasers is feasible and leads to very reliable devices.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
68.35.Md Surface thermodynamics, surface energies
05.70.Jk Critical point phenomena
42.60.Da Resonators, cavities, amplifiers, arrays, and rings

Continuous B→X excimer fluorescence using direct current discharge excitation

R. S. Taylor, K. E. Leopold, and K. O. Tan

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 525 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.105427 (3 pages) | Cited 13 times

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Continuous cw (B→X) excimer fluorescence has been obtained at the KrCl, KrF, XeCl, and XeF wavelengths, using longitudinal direct current (dc) electrical excitation at current levels up to l A and gas pressures as high as 400 Torr. Electrical power deposition to (B→X) fluorescence conversion efficiencies of up to ∼1% have been measured.
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33.50.Dq Fluorescence and phosphorescence spectra
42.55.Lt Gas lasers including excimer and metal-vapor lasers
52.80.Dy Low-field and Townsend discharges

Structural imperfections in silicon dioxide films identified with vacuum ultraviolet optical absorption measurements

Koichi Awazu, Hiroshi Kawazoe, Yasutoshi Saito, Kikuo Watanabe, and Toshio Ando

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 528 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.105428 (3 pages) | Cited 6 times

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The optical absorption of silicon dioxide films fabricated by dry oxidation at 1000 or 1100 °C was studied by measurements in the vacuum ultraviolet region. Two clear absorption bands at 7.6 and 6.7 eV were found for the films. Intensities of the bands decreased following heat treatment in a H2 ambient. The absorption band at 7.6 eV is considered to be caused by the defect having the structure of 3O≡SiSi≡O3. The concentration of the 3O≡SiSi≡O3 structure was estimated to be 6×1019 cm−3 and 5×1018 cm−3 for the films fabricated at 1000 and 1100 °C, respectively.
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61.43.Fs Glasses
61.43.-j Disordered solids
61.44.Br Quasicrystals
78.30.Hv Other nonmetallic inorganics
78.40.Ha Other nonmetallic inorganics
78.20.Ci Optical constants (including refractive index, complex dielectric constant, absorption, reflection and transmission coefficients, emissivity)
61.72.S- Impurities in crystals

Visible optical parametric oscillation in LiB3O5

Yunping Wang, Zuyan Xu, Daoqun Deng, Wanhua Zheng, Baichang Wu, and Chuangtian Chen

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 531 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.105429 (3 pages) | Cited 14 times

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The successful operation of a visible optical parametric oscillator (OPO) using a LiB3O5 crystal as the nonlinear element is reported. An energy conversion efficiency as high as 22% for a signal wave has been obtained in a 15.9‐mm‐long crystal. This OPO can generate visible output energy of 2.7 mJ and be continuously tuned from 435 to 1922 nm.
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42.65.Ky Frequency conversion; harmonic generation, including higher-order harmonic generation
42.70.-a Optical materials

Measurement of energy penetration depth of subpicosecond laser energy into solid density matter

A. Zigler, P. G. Burkhalter, D. J. Nagel, M. D. Rosen, K. Boyer, G. Gibson, T. S. Luk, A. McPherson, and C. K. Rhodes

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 534 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.105430 (3 pages) | Cited 23 times

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The energy penetration depth characteristic of the interaction of intense subpicosecond (∼600 fs) ultraviolet (248 nm) laser radiation with solid density material has been experimentally determined. This was accomplished by using a series of ultraviolet transmitting targets consisting of a fused silica (SiO2) substrate coated with an 80–600 nm layer of MgF2. The measurement of He‐like and H‐like Si and Mg lines, as a function of MgF2 thickness, enabled the determination of the energy penetration depth. It was found that this depth falls in the range of 250–300 nm for a laser intensity of ∼3×1016 W/cm2. Based on numerical simulations, it is estimated that solid density material to a depth of ∼250 nm is heated to an electron temperature of ∼500 eV.
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61.80.Ba Ultraviolet, visible, and infrared radiation effects (including laser radiation)
79.20.Ds Laser-beam impact phenomena
52.70.Kz Optical (ultraviolet, visible, infrared) measurements

Measured pressure broadening and shift rates of the 1.73 μm (5d[3/2]1–6p[5/2]2) transition of xenon

G. A. Hebner and G. N. Hays

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 537 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.105431 (3 pages) | Cited 11 times

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Pressure broadening and line center shift rates as a function of helium, neon, and argon pressure have been measured for the 1.73 μm (5d[3/2]1–6p[5/2]2) transition in xenon. The pressure broadening rates are 20.3±6.4, 12.7± 3.5, and 19.7±2.9 MHz/Torr for helium, neon, and argon buffers, respectively.
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32.70.Jz Line shapes, widths, and shifts
32.70.Fw Absolute and relative intensities
42.55.Lt Gas lasers including excimer and metal-vapor lasers

Effect of Y2BaCuO5 inclusions on flux pinning in YBa2Cu3O7−δ

S. Jin, T. H. Tiefel, and G. W. Kammlott

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 540 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.105432 (3 pages) | Cited 23 times

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The effect of Y2BaCuO5 (211) inclusions on flux pinning in the YBa2Cu3O7−δ (123) superconductor has been investigated. Intragranular Jc has been measured on samples containing various amounts of dispersed (211) particles (0%–44%) with various particle sizes (1.3–10.4 μm). The results clearly show that the presence of (211) particles (at least down to the micron size level) neither significantly enhances the flux pinning nor deteriorates Jc. The observed insensitivity of Jc to the variation in the total particle surface area indicates that the likelihood of a substantial interface‐pinning effect is minimal. While the (211) inclusions appear to assist in the peritectic reactions resulting in better microstructural perfection during melt processing, particle size needs to be controlled to a much finer scale in order for them to serve as efficient pinning centers.
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74.25.Uv Vortex phases (includes vortex lattices, vortex liquids, and vortex glasses)
74.25.Sv Critical currents
74.62.Bf Effects of material synthesis, crystal structure, and chemical composition
74.25.Ha Magnetic properties including vortex structures and related phenomena

Epitaxial growth of Al on Si(001) by sputtering

H. Niwa and Masaharu Kato

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 543 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.105433 (3 pages) | Cited 4 times

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Epitaxy of Al deposited by sputtering on Si(001) substrates was investigated in detail by transmission electron microscopy studies. Heat treatment during or after deposition and growth to greater thickness enlarged the Al grains in the film and made the epitaxial relationship more distinct. It is confirmed that the Al epitaxy formed by the sputtering method is as perfect as that by other techniques.
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81.15.Kk Vapor phase epitaxy; growth from vapor phase
81.15.Cd Deposition by sputtering
85.40.Ls Metallization, contacts, interconnects; device isolation
07.79.Cz Scanning tunneling microscopes
61.05.-a Techniques for structure determination

Induced nucleation of diamond powder

M. Frenklach, W. Howard, D. Huang, J. Yuan, K. E. Spear, and R. Koba

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 546 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.105434 (3 pages) | Cited 17 times

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The effects of heteroatom addition on the nucleation of solid carbon in a low‐pressure plasma reactor were investigated. Silane or diborane were added to acetylene mixed in hydrogen or argon. Oxygen was added to some of the diborane containing gas mixtures. Silane containing mixtures resulted in powder comprised of weakly bonded amorphous hydrogenated carbon‐silicon material. The addition of diborane resulted in substantial production of diamond particles, 5 to 450 nm in diameter, under the conditions that show no diamond formation without diborane present. The observed yield of the oxidation‐resistant powder produced in boron‐containing mixtures reached 1.3 mg/h with the linear growth rates of diamond particles on the order of 102–104 μm/h. Implication of these results to interstellar dust formation is discussed.
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81.20.Ev Powder processing: powder metallurgy, compaction, sintering, mechanical alloying, and granulation
81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)

Hot filament enhanced chemical vapor deposition of AlN thin films

Jeffrey L. Dupuie and Erdogan Gulari

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 549 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.105410 (3 pages) | Cited 13 times

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Hot filament enhanced chemical vapor deposition of aluminum nitride thin films from trimethylaluminum and ammonia has been investigated for deposition temperatures ranging from 584 to 732 K. The use of a hot filament resulted in an approximate two orders of magnitude increase in the deposition rate compared to a similar, uncatalyzed growth. The film deposition rate and refractive index did not depend on the substrate temperature. X‐ray photoelectron spectroscopy and Fourier‐transform infrared spectroscopy indicated that the films were high purity aluminum nitride, with negligible carbon and oxygen contamination.  
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81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
68.43.-h Chemisorption/physisorption: adsorbates on surfaces

Metalorganic molecular beam epitaxial growth of InP/GaInAs multiquantum wells for infrared photodetection

D. Ritter, R. A. Hamm, M. B. Panish, J. M. Vandenberg, D. Gershoni, S. D. Gunapala, and B. F. Levine

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 552 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.105411 (3 pages) | Cited 12 times

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See Also: Erratum

Show Abstract
Multiquantum well structures of InP/Ga0.47In0.53As were grown by metalorganic molecular beam epitaxy for the fabrication of infrared photodetectors. The thickness and composition uniformity of the wells was determined by high‐resolution x‐ray diffraction, photoluminescence, and photoluminescence excitation experiments. The intersubband absorption spectrum of the multiquantum well structures optimized for infrared detection is found to be in the 7–8 μm range.
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68.65.-k Low-dimensional, mesoscopic, nanoscale and other related systems: structure and nonelectronic properties
81.15.Hi Molecular, atomic, ion, and chemical beam epitaxy
85.60.Gz Photodetectors (including infrared and CCD detectors)

Tunneling assisted modulation of the intersubband absorption in double quantum wells

N. Vodjdani, B. Vinter, V. Berger, E. Böckenhoff, and E. Costard

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 555 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.105384 (3 pages) | Cited 29 times

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We present a new efficient modulator structure in which electron tunneling between asymmetric coupled quantum wells is used to populate or deplete the ground level for the infrared (IR) absorption, leading to externally controlled IR absorption at two different wavelengths (here 10.2 and 11.4 μm). The temperature dependence of the modulation depth is measured. We have used photoluminescence and photoluminescence excitation spectroscopies to analyze the space charge effects in the double quantum wells, and to estimate the carrier concentration in each well as a function of bias. The behavior of the device has been simulated using a self‐consistent model.
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78.66.Sq Composite materials
73.21.-b Electron states and collective excitations in multilayers, quantum wells, mesoscopic, and nanoscale systems
73.40.Gk Tunneling
73.40.Cg Contact resistance, contact potential

High‐field transport transient of minority carriers in p‐GaAs

A. M. Alencar, F. A. S. Nobre, A. J. C. Sampaio, V. N. Freire, J. Alzamir, and P. da Costa

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 558 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.105385 (3 pages) | Cited 9 times

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The time evolution of the minority electron velocity and temperature in p‐GaAs towards the steady state is calculated for high‐electric fields and doping concentrations of 1.5×1017 and 1.5×1018 cm−3. It is shown that the velocity overshoot is less pronounced for high doping concentration. The electron‐hole interaction reduces the overshoot effect, which indicates its role in the high‐field transport transient of minority carriers in p‐GaAs.
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73.50.Fq High-field and nonlinear effects
73.40.Kp III-V semiconductor-to-semiconductor contacts, p-n junctions, and heterojunctions
73.40.Gk Tunneling
73.61.Ey III-V semiconductors

Photoluminescence enhancement monitored in real time during photowashing of GaAs

J. F. Kauffman and G. L. Richmond

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 561 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.105386 (3 pages) | Cited 7 times

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We have observed the luminescence emitted from GaAs during the surface treatment process known as photowashing. This allows us to probe the extent of surface quality improvement in real time as the treatment proceeds. We observe a tenfold increase in photoluminescence (PL) intensity during photowashing, which provides unambiguous proof that PL enhancement does not require an activation step following photowashing. We also observe that the PL enhancement persists for at least 1 h under continued photowashing. Studies performed to elucidate the chemistry of PL enhancement indicate that sample history has a critical influence on experimental results, and that experimental details cannot be overlooked when comparing different experiments. We quantify the improvement in surface quality by measuring surface minority trapping velocities from luminescence decay profiles following picosecond optical excitation.
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78.55.Cr III-V semiconductors
81.65.-b Surface treatments
72.80.Ey III-V and II-VI semiconductors
82.65.+r Surface and interface chemistry; heterogeneous catalysis at surfaces

Defect activated infrared multiphonon excitation in iron‐doped semi‐insulating indium phosphide

Lung‐Han Peng, Tom Broekaert, Woo‐Young Choi, Clifton Fonstad, and Victor Jones

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 564 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.105387 (3 pages) | Cited 2 times

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Multiphonon excitation induced by long‐range order crystal‐field and short‐range order Jahn–Teller distortion effects is observed in Fe‐doped semi‐insulating InP in the spectral range from 400 to 1100 cm−1 for infrared light propagating in a slab waveguide geometry. Transmission measurement data are analyzed in terms of phonon energies at critical points in the Brillouin zone. The phonon energies obtained are in excellent agreement with recently reported second order Raman scattering spectra and two‐phonon absorption measurements of crystalline InP. The energy differences between the nearly degenerate two phonon transverse optical+longitudinal optical transitions at the Γ, X, and L points are also resolved and shown to be 10 cm−1. No localized mode or vibronic level absorption is observed, consistent with the relatively low concentration of Fe impurities in the samples.
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63.20.D- Phonon states and bands, normal modes, and phonon dispersion
78.30.-j Infrared and Raman spectra
78.40.Fy Semiconductors
71.70.Ej Spin-orbit coupling, Zeeman and Stark splitting, Jahn-Teller effect

Vacancy ordering of Ga2Se3 films by molecular beam epitaxy

Nobuaki Teraguchi, Fuji Kato, Makoto Konagai, Kiyoshi Takahashi, Yoshio Nakamura, and Nobuo Otsuka

Appl. Phys. Lett. 59, 567 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.105388 (3 pages) | Cited 13 times

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Ga2Se3 films have been grown by molecular beam epitaxy. Single‐crystal Ga2Se3 films were obtained for the first time on (001) GaP substrates at a substrate temperature of 550 °C and at a VI/III flux ratio greater than 15. Extra diffraction spots with weak intensity were observed in reflection high‐energy electron diffraction patterns of the Ga2Se3 films grown at a VI/III ratio above 150. These extra spots were also observed in the transmission electron diffraction pattern. The extra points are attributed to the ordering of native Ga vacancies in the defect zinc blende structure.
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81.15.Hi Molecular, atomic, ion, and chemical beam epitaxy
68.55.Ln Defects and impurities: doping, implantation, distribution, concentration, etc.
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