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20 Apr 1992

Volume 60, Issue 16, pp. 1921-2032

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Circularly symmetric operation of a concentric‐circle‐grating, surface‐ emitting, AlGaAs/GaAs quantum‐well semiconductor laser

T. Erdogan, O. King, G. W. Wicks, D. G. Hall, Erik H. Anderson, and M. J. Rooks

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 1921 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.107151 (3 pages) | Cited 73 times

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A surface‐emitting semiconductor laser that utilizes a concentric‐circle grating defined by electron‐beam lithography is observed to oscillate in a circularly symmetric fashion. The laser emits a circularly symmetric beam with a total beam divergence of less than 1°. Despite its broad‐area geometry, the laser shows no evidence of filamentation. The laser maintains a relatively narrow wavelength spectrum approximately 1 Å in width.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.60.-v Laser optical systems: design and operation

Wide‐band Bragg reflectors made with silica on silicon waveguides

R. Adar, C. H. Henry, R. C. Kistler, R. F. Kazarinov, and J. S. Weiner

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 1924 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.107152 (3 pages) | Cited 3 times

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We report the fabrication of strong Bragg reflectors embedded into fiber matched silica on silicon waveguides. First order gratings are dry etched into the waveguide core and are covered with a thin Si3N4 layer prior to cladding deposition. Reflection bands 225 Å wide for TE and 193 Å wide for TM polarizations are obtained with 200 Å Si3N4 cover layers. The TE and TM spectra are overlapping, resulting in nearly polarization independent Bragg reflectors.
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42.79.Bh Lenses, prisms and mirrors
42.81.-i Fiber optics
42.82.-m Integrated optics

Low threshold, 633 nm, single tensile‐strained quantum well Ga0.6In0.4P/(AlxGa1−x)0.5In0.5P laser

D. P. Bour, D. W. Treat, R. L. Thornton, T. L. Paoli, R. D. Bringans, B. S. Krusor, R. S. Geels, D. F. Welch, and T. Y. Wang

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 1927 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.107153 (3 pages) | Cited 16 times

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Low threshold, 633 nm diode lasers are demonstrated. These devices contain a single, 80 Å, tensile‐strained Ga0.6In0.4P quantum well (QW) active region, and Al0.5In0.5P cladding layers, grown by low‐pressure organometallic vapor phase epitaxy on misoriented substrates. Operating characteristics are compared with low‐threshold, 680 nm compressively strained Ga0.4In0.6P QW lasers. Although performance is not as good as for the 680 nm devices, the 633 nm lasers have characteristic temperature T0∼60 K and low pulsed threshold current density (400 A/cm2). These improved characteristics are believed due to the incorporation of a single, tensile‐strained QW, along with (Al0.6Ga0.4)0.5In0.5P confining layers, which offer increased electron confinement.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.60.-v Laser optical systems: design and operation

Effect of state filling on the modulation response and the threshold current of quantum well lasers

B. Zhao, T. R. Chen, and A. Yariv

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 1930 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.107154 (3 pages) | Cited 22 times

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The influence of state filling (carrier population of upper subbands of quantum well laser structures) on the optical gain constant is analyzed in conventional separate confinement quantum well lasers. We find that the appreciable population in the states of the optical confinement layers causes a significant lowering of the differential gain. It is pointed out that strain induced reduction of state‐filling effects is a probable cause of improved performance in the tensile strained quantum well lasers. The strategy of design for very high frequency and very low threshold current quantum well lasers is addressed.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
78.45.+h Stimulated emission

New method of measuring second harmonic generation efficiency using powder crystals

M. Kiguchi, M. Kato, M. Okunaka, and Y. Taniguchi

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 1933 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.107155 (3 pages) | Cited 15 times

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A new method of measuring second‐harmonic generation (SHG) efficiency using powder crystals is proposed. The second harmonic, which is generated by the evanescent wave under total reflection conditions, is phase matched for every element of the second‐order optical nonlinear coefficient, whether each element is phase matchable in a bulk crystal or not. Observing this phase‐matched second‐harmonic power gives the SHG efficiency, regardless of the phase matchability in a bulk crystal, even if powder crystals are used as a sample.
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42.65.Ky Frequency conversion; harmonic generation, including higher-order harmonic generation
07.60.-j Optical instruments and equipment

Compatible laser emission and optical waveguide modulation at 1.5 μm using Wannier–Stark localization

E. Bigan, J. C. Harmand, M. Allovon, M. Carré, A. Carenco, and P. Voisin

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 1936 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.107156 (3 pages) | Cited 3 times

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We investigate the electroabsorption properties of an InGaAs‐InAlAs superlattice optical waveguide. When reverse biased, the structure exhibits large extinction ratios over short waveguide lengths with very low drive voltages by using low‐energy oblique transitions below the superlattice band gap. Although the structure has been optimized for modulation, laser emission is observed under forward bias. The peak emission wavelength stands in the ‘‘blue‐shift’’ region which opens a way to straightforward laser‐modulator monolithic integration.
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42.79.Hp Optical processors, correlators, and modulators
42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.79.Sz Optical communication systems, multiplexers, and demultiplexers
78.66.Fd III-V semiconductors
78.66.Hf II-VI semiconductors

High current and directional electron beams produced from gold photocathodes by ultrashort excimer laser pulses

S. D. Moustaizis, M. Tatarakis, C. Kalpouzos, and C. Fotakis

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 1939 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.107157 (3 pages) | Cited 15 times

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The surface photoelectric effect induced by 500 fs excimer laser pulses in a gold metallic target has been studied. Unexpectedly high current densities of 4 kA/cm2, induced by laser intensities in the 3 GW/cm2 range have been measured. Intense photoelectron emission could also be observed at laser intensities up to 10 GW/cm2 without plasma formation. Furthermore, an electron angular distribution of 18°±2° was obtained for laser intensities in the range of 1–3 GW/cm2. These results are compared to those obtained in previous work for single‐photon and multiphoton photoeffects by using longer laser pulses, and their potential exploitation for free‐electron laser and accelerator applications is discussed.
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79.60.Bm Clean metal, semiconductor, and insulator surfaces
79.20.Ds Laser-beam impact phenomena

Study of silicon‐hydrogen bonds at an amorphous silicon/silicon nitride interface using infrared attenuated total reflection spectroscopy

Tomotaka Matsumoto, Yuji Murata, and Jun‐ichi Watanabe

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 1942 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.107158 (3 pages) | Cited 7 times

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Silicon‐hydrogen bonding structures at a hydrogenated amorphous silicon (a‐Si:H)/silicon nitride (SiN) interface have been investigated using Fourier transform infrared attenuated total reflection (FTIR‐ATR). Depositing a SiN overlayer markedly decreased the higher hydrides, which consist of SiHn (n=2,3) bonds, on the a‐Si:H surface. The low density of higher hydrides at the resulting SiN‐on‐a‐Si:H interface may be due to plasma‐enhanced extraction or a transfer of the growing surface. By contrast, at an a‐Si:H‐on‐SiN interface, the higher hydrides density is about 8.1×1014 cm−2. We believe this large amount of hydrogen at the a‐Si:H‐on‐SiN interface relaxes strained bonds at the interface. In both the SiN‐on‐a‐Si:H interface and the a‐Si:H‐on‐SiN interface, hydrogen is implanted in the underlayer during the deposition of the overlayer. Our results indicate the structure of underlayer near the interface is strongly affected by the deposition of the overlayer.
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68.35.Fx Diffusion; interface formation
68.55.Ln Defects and impurities: doping, implantation, distribution, concentration, etc.
73.20.At Surface states, band structure, electron density of states

Linewidth dependence of notchlike void generation in fine aluminum conductors

Tetsuo Yamaji, Yasushi Igarashi, and Satoshi Nishikawa

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 1945 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.107159 (3 pages)

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In a silicon integrated circuit, stress‐induced void generation in fine Al conductor lines degrades device reliability. Optically observable void (often called ‘‘notchlike void’’) generated during the manufacturing process was investigated. It was experimentally observed that void generation decreases with decreasing linewidth in the width range narrower than about 1.8 μm. The reduction was attributed to the decreasing gradient of tensile stress in the line. The stress gradient was obtained by stress analysis using a numerical simulator. It was proposed from the determined activation energy of Al diffusion that lattice diffusion of Al atoms is the rate limiting process for notchlike void generation.
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85.40.Ls Metallization, contacts, interconnects; device isolation
65.40.De Thermal expansion; thermomechanical effects
66.30.Lw Diffusion of other defects
62.20.M- Structural failure of materials

Massive thinning of diamond films by a diffusion process

S. Jin, J. E. Graebner, G. W. Kammlott, T. H. Tiefel, S. G. Kosinski, L. H. Chen, and R. A. Fastnacht

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 1948 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.107133 (3 pages) | Cited 19 times

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Substantial thinning or polishing of diamond films is a nontrivial problem because of the extraordinary hardness of diamond. In this letter, we report the observation of massive thinning of CVD diamond film (from ∼220 to ∼120 μm thickness) by simple diffusional transfer of carbon from diamond to iron foil at 900 °C. The thinning process also creates relatively smooth surfaces by eliminating much of the roughness from the top faceted surface of the film. A very sharp Raman peak at 1332 cm−1 indicates that the high quality of the diamond bonding is not compromised by the thinning heat treatment. This technique may be useful for conveniently removing the undesirable part of the diamond films, such as the rough growth facets or the fine‐grained bottom layer with inferior thermal properties.
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81.65.-b Surface treatments
66.30.Ny Chemical interdiffusion; diffusion barriers

Epitaxial growth of double hexagonal close‐packed Nd on the α‐Fe (111) surface

Yang‐Tse Cheng and Yen‐Lung Chen

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 1951 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.107134 (3 pages) | Cited 5 times

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Epitaxial double hexagonal close‐packed (dhcp) Nd layers have been grown on the (111) surface of α‐Fe at 320 °C by electron beam evaporation in an ultrahigh vacuum environment. Conventional θ‐2θ diffraction and transmission electron microscopy show that the dhcp Nd films are oriented with the dhcp Nd (0001) plane parallel to the α‐Fe(111) plane and with the dhcp Nd [1120] direction parallel to the Fe[110] direction in the plane of the substrate. An epitaxial Fe/Nd/Fe trilayer structure with the same orientational relationships has also been made.
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68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
81.15.-z Methods of deposition of films and coatings; film growth and epitaxy

Boundary layer elasto‐optic switching in ferroelectric liquid crystals

D. S. Parmar

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 1954 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.107135 (3 pages) | Cited 3 times

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Utilizing a simple new configuration, one rigid surface and the other exposed directly to the gas flow, elasto‐optic switching in thin (∼2 μm) ferroelectric liquid crystal films is observed when a gas flow is impingement in the plane of smectic layers. The elasto‐optic response caused by the shear stress is large, fast, and reversible.
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42.79.Kr Display devices, liquid-crystal devices
64.70.M- Transitions in liquid crystals

Enhancement of sp3/sp2 ratio in plasma deposited amorphous hydrogenated carbon films by the addition of ammonia

Jayshree Seth, Anthony J. I. Ward, and S. V. Babu

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 1957 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.107136 (3 pages) | Cited 6 times

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Ammonia (NH3) and nitrogen (N2) were added to the hydrocarbon precursor 1,3 butadiene (C4H6) during rf plasma deposition of hydrogenated amorphous carbon (a:C‐H) films. The effect of the additives on the film characteristics was determined by IR spectroscopy, solid state 13C cross polarization magic angle spinning nuclear magnetic resonance, and etching in an oxygen plasma. Nitrogen incorporation in the films was studied by Auger electron spectroscopy. Compared to films deposited in the presence of N2, the films deposited from a C4H6/NH3 plasma had an sp3/sp2 ratio that was 40% higher. IR spectra of the films confirm the higher sp3/sp2 ratio. Also, the films deposited from C4H6/NH3 mixtures exhibited lower etch rates in an oxygen plasma. The larger sp3/sp2 ratio is due to the higher concentration of NHx and H species in a C4H6/NH3 plasma.
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81.15.-z Methods of deposition of films and coatings; film growth and epitaxy
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology

Atomic‐scale manipulation in air with the scanning tunneling microscope

Ricardo García García

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 1960 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.107137 (3 pages) | Cited 27 times

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From the practical point of view, the aim in nanofabrication is to build the smallest possible device operable in air and at room temperature. In this letter, we present a procedure in which a scanning tunneling microscope is used to remove a small number of atoms from a surface at room temperature and pressure. Its potential for high density storage of information is shown by two results: (i) two subnanometer marks, 1.2 nm apart were impressed and (ii) these marks remained unaltered after several observations.  
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85.40.Hp Lithography, masks and pattern transfer
07.79.Cz Scanning tunneling microscopes
61.05.-a Techniques for structure determination
79.70.+q Field emission, ionization, evaporation, and desorption
81.65.-b Surface treatments

Si‐implanted InGaP/GaAs metal‐semiconductor field‐effect transistors

Fumiaki Hyuga, Tatsuo Aoki, Suehiro Sugitani, Kazuyoshi Asai, and Yoshihiro Imamura

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 1963 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.107112 (3 pages) | Cited 11 times

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A new device structure for Si‐implanted GaAs metal‐semiconductor field‐effect transistors (MESFETs), with an InGaP thin film on the GaAs surface, is proposed. A 200 Å InGaP film passivated the GaAs surface and increased the Schottky barrier height on n‐type GaAs layers with a carrier concentration as high as 3×1018/cm3 to more than 0.6 eV. These effects persisted after annealing at 800 °C for 10 min. The transconductance of 2‐μm‐gate MESFETs remained above 150 mS/mm at gate voltages up to 1.0 V. Si‐implanted InGaP/GaAs MESFETs are thus promising devices for use in high‐speed and low‐noise integrated circuits.
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85.30.Tv Field effect devices
73.40.Kp III-V semiconductor-to-semiconductor contacts, p-n junctions, and heterojunctions
73.30.+y Surface double layers, Schottky barriers, and work functions

Residue‐free reactive ion etching of β‐SiC in CHF3/O2 with H2 additive

A. J. Steckl and P. H. Yih

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 1966 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.107113 (3 pages) | Cited 32 times

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Longer term CHF3/O2 reactive ion etching of β‐SiC thin films on Si required for heterostructure fabrication results in the formation of columnar residues in the etched regions which prevent proper device operation. Using Auger electron spectroscopy, the formation of the residues has been correlated with the sputter deposition of Al particles from the plasma electrode onto the SiC surface and the subsequent micromasking effect. A low‐level (∼10%) addition of H2 gas to the CHF3/O2 plasma was found to completely prevent the formation of residues in the etched regions. Possible mechanisms responsible for the prevention of residues include the formation of volatile Al‐H compounds and the enhanced etching of the C‐rich surface.
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81.65.-b Surface treatments
85.40.Hp Lithography, masks and pattern transfer
81.15.Cd Deposition by sputtering

Electroabsorption in the type II superlattices

Shaozhong Li and Jacob B. Khurgin

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 1969 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.107114 (3 pages) | Cited 6 times

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Electric field dependence of the optical absorption in the ZnSe0.35Te0.65‐ZnSe type II superlattice has been studied. An extremely large blue shift of the absorption edge found for the structure makes it an attractive choice for the waveguide visible light modulators.
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78.66.Fd III-V semiconductors
78.66.Hf II-VI semiconductors
42.65.Pc Optical bistability, multistability, and switching, including local field effects
42.70.Nq Other nonlinear optical materials; photorefractive and semiconductor materials

Far‐infrared capture of electrons by DX centers

J. J. Plombon, W. W. Bewley, C. L. Felix, M. S. Sherwin, P. Hopkins, M. Sundaram, and A. C. Gossard

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 1972 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.107115 (3 pages) | Cited 5 times

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Intense radiation with photon energy of a few meV can induce the capture of electrons by DX centers in AlxGa1−xAs:Si.
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71.55.Eq III-V semiconductors
61.72.U- Doping and impurity implantation
72.20.Ht High-field and nonlinear effects
78.30.-j Infrared and Raman spectra
78.40.Fy Semiconductors

Observation of stable room‐temperature photoconductivity in hydrogenated amorphous silicon following long term light soaking

J. Xi, J. Macneil, T. Liu, and M. Ghosh

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 1975 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.107116 (3 pages) | Cited 3 times

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Intrinsic hydrogenated amorphous silicon exhibiting unchanged room‐temperature photoconductivity of 1.5×10−5 (Ω cm)−1 at 100 mW cm−2 after prolonged illumination and a photo‐to‐dark conductivity ratio over 106 is reported for the first time. Photoconductivity and CPM data in the as‐deposited and light‐soaked states, supported by dark conductivity and analytical measurements, suggest that the metastable midgap states in this material are significantly lower than levels previously reported.
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72.80.Ng Disordered solids
72.40.+w Photoconduction and photovoltaic effects
71.55.Ht Other nonmetals

Raman spectra of individual Si thin layers with 4–40 atomic layer thicknesses buried in GaAs (001)

H. Tanino, H. Kawanami, and H. Matsuhata

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 1978 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.107117 (3 pages) | Cited 6 times

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We present a Raman scattering study of 4–40 layer thick Si films grown epitaxially on GaAs (001) and covered by GaAs. The peak shift and the broadening of the optical phonon modes of Si are discussed in terms of the planar biaxially tensile strains in the Si thin layers, the partial lattice relaxation, and the phonon confinement effect in the layers. The extraordinarily broad peaks of the Si phonon modes of the 4–8 layer thick films are not sufficiently explained by the above effects. We propose the three‐dimensional confinement effect into the quantum well disks as a candidate of the origin of the peak energy shift and the broadening of the phonons.
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78.30.Hv Other nonmetallic inorganics
68.65.-k Low-dimensional, mesoscopic, nanoscale and other related systems: structure and nonelectronic properties

Optical transitions and chemistry at the In0.52Al0.48As/InP interface

M. J. S. P. Brasil, R. E. Nahory, W. E. Quinn, M. C. Tamargo, and H. H. Farrell

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 1981 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.107118 (3 pages) | Cited 23 times

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We report properties of the InAlAs/InP interface and its formation during growth by organometallic molecular beam epitaxy. Taking advantage of the photoluminescence emission occurring at this type II interface, we were able to directly investigate the interface characteristics for different growth conditions. A shift is observed in the energy of the interface recombination transition which we interpret as evidence of a P‐As exchange effect dependent on the specific growth sequence. This effect was further investigated by growing interfaces with thin layers (InAs, AlAs, AlP) between the InP and InAlAs. The results can be understood in terms of a model based on bond strength considerations. We predicted and demonstrated that the most stable interface is obtained with incorporation of a thin AlP interfacial layer.
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78.55.Cr III-V semiconductors
68.35.Fx Diffusion; interface formation
81.15.Hi Molecular, atomic, ion, and chemical beam epitaxy
68.65.-k Low-dimensional, mesoscopic, nanoscale and other related systems: structure and nonelectronic properties

Oxygen assisted ohmic contact formation mechanism to n‐type GaAs

Naftali Lustig and R. G. Schad

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 1984 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.107119 (3 pages) | Cited 3 times

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The presence of oxygen in the top W layer of NiGe(Au)W ohmic contacts to n‐type GaAs is found to play a critical role in reducing their contact resistance. Contacts with sputtered W containing less than 1 at. % oxygen and formed by rapid thermal annealing (RTA) yield a contact resistance (RC) greater than 0.45 Ω mm. Contacts with a reactively sputtered or electron‐beam evaporated metallic W oxide top layer, containing ∼25 at. % oxygen, yield RC’s of less than 0.15 Ω mm. Auger depth profiles of the reacted contacts show a significant outdiffusion of Ga from the GaAs substrate in the presence of the oxygenated W but not in the oxygen‐free contacts. A contact formation mechanism based on the gettering of Ga atoms by oxygen is proposed.
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73.40.Ns Metal-nonmetal contacts
81.15.-z Methods of deposition of films and coatings; film growth and epitaxy
81.65.-b Surface treatments

Evidence for facets with 〈210〉 azimuth in molecular beam epitaxial growth on patterned GaAs(001) substrates

H. Benisty, E. Böckenhoff, and A. Talneau

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 1987 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.107120 (3 pages) | Cited 3 times

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We present clear experimental evidence that using axes different from the 〈110〉 mirror axes of the (001) GaAs surface generally used for lateral patterning and regrowth of nanostructures yield much better faceted morphologies in molecular‐beam epitaxy (MBE) at such scales. Growth on [210] and [120] oriented gratings is shown to yield almost perfect (21n) facets (n≊6). A novel directed one‐dimensional growth instability is clearly revealed. The microscopic structure of these facets is discussed as well as implications for the growth of quantum wires and dots in the (In,Ga,Al)As system.
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68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology

Carbon redistribution during molecular beam epitaxy of GaAs n‐i‐p+‐i‐n structures using trimethylgallium as the p‐type dopant

G. E. Höfler, J. N. Baillargeon, K. C. Hsieh, and K. Y. Cheng

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 1990 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.107477 (3 pages) | Cited 5 times

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The redistribution of carbon during molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) growth of GaAs n‐i‐p+‐i‐n structures using silicon and carbon as n‐type and p‐type dopants, respectively, is shown by secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS) analysis and electrochemical capacitance‐voltage measurements. Diffusion of carbon into the surface layer is clearly observed when the carbon concentration in the p+ region exceeds ∼6×1019 cm−3. The data also shows that a significant fraction of the diffused carbon is electrically active.
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68.55.Ln Defects and impurities: doping, implantation, distribution, concentration, etc.
81.15.Hi Molecular, atomic, ion, and chemical beam epitaxy
66.30.J- Diffusion of impurities

Effect of spatial correlation of DX centers on the mobility in heavily doped n‐type GaAs

D. K. Maude, L. Eaves, and J. C. Portal

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 1993 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.107121 (3 pages) | Cited 11 times

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The persistent photoconductivity effect at low temperatures and under hydrostatic pressure is used to study the effect of spatial correlation of DX centers on the mobility and Shubnikov–de Haas oscillations in heavily doped n‐type GaAs. Upon illumination, the transport mobility and the quantum relaxation time τs decrease rapidly with increasing carrier concentration. This is due to the destruction of the correlated distribution of DX centers by the random photoionization process. The enhancement of τs due to correlations is estimated.
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71.55.Eq III-V semiconductors
71.18.+y Fermi surface: calculations and measurements; effective mass, g factor
72.40.+w Photoconduction and photovoltaic effects
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