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4 May 1992

Volume 60, Issue 18, pp. 2177-2308

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100 fs pulse generation from an all‐solid‐state Nd:glass fiber laser oscillator

M. H. Ober, F. Haberl, and M. E. Fermann

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 2177 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.107476 (3 pages) | Cited 5 times

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An all‐solid‐state passively mode‐locked Nd:glass fiber laser delivering 100 pJ pulses with a minimal pulse width of 100 fs is demonstrated. The oscillator has room‐mean‐square amplitude fluctuations of 0.2% in a frequency band from 15 Hz to 100 kHz.
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42.55.Rz Doped-insulator lasers and other solid state lasers
42.60.Fc Modulation, tuning, and mode locking

Efficient parametric generation of high‐power coherent picosecond pulses in lithium borate tunable from 0.405 to 2.4 μm

H.‐J. Krause and W. Daum

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 2180 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.107072 (3 pages) | Cited 11 times

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We have used lithium borate crystals, pumped by 18 ps laser pulses at 0.355 μm, as efficient optical parametric generator and amplifier of tunable, high‐power picosecond pulses in the visible and near‐infrared. This angle‐tuned parametric device has a remarkably wide tuning range from 0.403 to 2.58 μm with a maximum pump‐to‐signal conversion of 28% around 0.425 μm. We investigate the influence of the pump intensity on the bandwidth of the tunable output. The duration of signal and idler pulses is 11–12 ps. No bulk or surface damage was observed for pump intensities up to 5 GW/cm2.
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42.65.Ky Frequency conversion; harmonic generation, including higher-order harmonic generation
42.79.Nv Optical frequency converters

Optical and structural investigation of SiGe/Si quantum wells

L. Vescan, A. Hartmann, K. Schmidt, Ch. Dieker, H. Lüth, and W. Jäger

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 2183 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.107073 (3 pages) | Cited 33 times

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In this letter we report photoluminescence and structural results obtained on asymmetrically strained Si0.7Ge0.3/Si single and multiple quantum wells epitaxially grown by low pressure chemical vapor deposition. Well‐resolved peaks were obtained which can be attributed to quantum well excitons and their transversal optical phonon replica. A good correlation between peak properties and structure results was found. From the photoluminescence peak energies a valence band offset of 0.27 eV and an effective hole mass of 0.25 were estimated.
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78.55.Hx Other solid inorganic materials
07.79.Cz Scanning tunneling microscopes
61.05.-a Techniques for structure determination

Temperature dependence of optical constants for amorphous silicon

Nhan Do, Leander Klees, P. T. Leung, Frank Tong, Wing P. Leung, and Andrew C. Tam

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 2186 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.107074 (3 pages) | Cited 16 times

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The temperature dependence of the optical constants for amorphous silicon (a‐Si) is studied for two different sample thicknesses at two infrared wavelengths. It is observed that the extinction coefficient of a‐Si can increase significantly with temperature in the strong absorption regime. In addition, using the Mott–Davis formula, results are obtained for the variation of the optical gap energy for a‐Si with temperature, with similar feature observed for both amorphous and crystal silicon.
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78.20.Ci Optical constants (including refractive index, complex dielectric constant, absorption, reflection and transmission coefficients, emissivity)
78.35.+c Brillouin and Rayleigh scattering; other light scattering
78.20.N- Thermo-optic effects
78.20.nb Photothermal effects
78.66.-w Optical properties of specific thin films

Modulation of photoluminescent intensity by applying high electric field in doubly insulated CaS:Eu phosphor thin films

M. Ando

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 2189 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.107075 (3 pages) | Cited 3 times

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Emission modulation effect produced by applying electric fields in a CaS:Eu phosphor thin film was studied. The CaS:Eu polycrystalline thin film was sandwiched between the insulating layers so that high electric fields up to 106 V/cm could be applied to the film. As a result, the photoluminescent intensity decreased with increasing applied electric field and the maximum modulation degree of 97% was obtained. The photoluminescent modulation effect was found to be caused by field‐induced ionization (a kind of tunneling effect) of the excited state of Eu2+ localized‐luminescent centers. These results indicated that the photoluminescent intensity of the phosphor thin films can be modulated by the electric field as well as by excitation intensity. These new features should offer the phosphor thin films new applications such as a spatial light modulator.
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78.20.Jq Electro-optical effects
78.55.Et II-VI semiconductors
78.60.Fi Electroluminescence
85.60.Jb Light-emitting devices

Composition and wavelength dependence of the refractive index in Cd1−xMnxTe epitaxial layers

D. W. Schubert, M. M. Kraus, R. Kenklies, C. R. Becker, and R. N. Bicknell‐Tassius

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 2192 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.107076 (3 pages) | Cited 5 times

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We have investigated Cd1−xMnxTe thin films with Mn concentrations of x=0.12, 0.18, 0.30, 0.52, and 0.70. These single crystal layers were grown by molecular beam epitaxy on [001] CdTe substrates. The real part of the refractive index, n, was determined below the band‐gap E0 in the range of 0.5–2.5 eV at T=300 K. The parallel reflectivity was measured near the Brewster angle at the YAG laser wavelength of 1.064 μm (hν=1.165 eV). Combining these results with the optical pathlength results (nd) of reflection measurements in a Fourier spectrometer we have determined n(x,ν) over a wide spectral range by utilizing a three parameter fit. The accuracy of these results for n should improve waveguide designs based on this material.
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78.20.Ci Optical constants (including refractive index, complex dielectric constant, absorption, reflection and transmission coefficients, emissivity)
81.15.Hi Molecular, atomic, ion, and chemical beam epitaxy
42.70.Nq Other nonlinear optical materials; photorefractive and semiconductor materials
73.61.Ga II-VI semiconductors

X‐ray generation by high irradiance subpicosecond lasers

G. A. Kyrala, R. D. Fulton, E. K. Wahlin, L. A. Jones, G. T. Schappert, J. A. Cobble, and A. J. Taylor

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 2195 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.107077 (3 pages) | Cited 40 times

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We have studied the interaction of 290‐fs, 308‐nm laser pulses with aluminum targets at irradiances exceeding 5×1018 W/cm2. The x‐ray spectrum is dominated by the H‐ and He‐like lines from aluminum, with the brightest lines radiating 0.8% of the incident laser light energy. This fraction is close to that measured at 50 times less irradiance, but occurs at a slightly higher ionization stage. The x rays are emitted from a region of subcritical electron density at 3–6×1021 W cm−3. The radiance of the 1.73‐keV Lα line is measured to be 4×1012 W/cm2/sr.
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52.25.Os Emission, absorption, and scattering of electromagnetic radiation
52.50.Jm Plasma production and heating by laser beams (laser-foil, laser-cluster, etc.)
52.38.-r Laser-plasma interactions
79.20.Ds Laser-beam impact phenomena

Plasma filled backward wave oscillator without an axial magnetic field

M. Botton

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 2198 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.107078 (3 pages) | Cited 1 time

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The linear growth rate of the electromagnetic and electrostatic instability in a plasma filled backward wave oscillator without a guiding axial magnetic field, are analyzed. It is shown that the absence of the external magnetic field has a small influence on the electromagnetic instability but profound effects on the electrostatic instability. The operation of a backward wave oscillator is found to be obtained when the space charge of the electron beam is neutralized by the plasma.
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41.75.Ht Relativistic electron and positron beams
52.25.Os Emission, absorption, and scattering of electromagnetic radiation
52.40.Mj Particle beam interactions in plasmas
52.59.Px Hard X-ray sources

Atomic structure of twin boundary in NiSi2 thin films on (001)Si

W. J. Chen, F. R. Chen, and L. J. Chen

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 2201 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.107079 (3 pages) | Cited 8 times

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High‐resolution transmission electron microscopy has been applied to determine the atomic structure of the twin boundary in NiSi2. From a match with the simulated images obtained by computation, Si atoms in the type A NiSi2 are found to bond with Si atoms in the type B NiSi2 at the (111) twin‐boundary plane, and the Ni atoms of both crystals are sevenfold coordinated. The result represents the first report of the atomic structure of the silicide twin boundary which is free from either elastic strain or misfit dislocations.
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81.15.Np Solid phase epitaxy; growth from solid phases
61.72.Mm Grain and twin boundaries
07.79.Cz Scanning tunneling microscopes
61.05.-a Techniques for structure determination

Electronic structure of chiral graphene tubules

R. Saito, M. Fujita, G. Dresselhaus, and M. S Dresselhaus

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 2204 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.107080 (3 pages) | Cited 1039 times

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The electronic structure for graphene monolayer tubules is predicted as a function of the diameter and helicity of the constituent graphene tubules. The calculated results show that approximately 1/3 of these tubules are a one‐dimensional metal which is stable against a Peierls distortion, and the other 2/3 are one‐dimensional semiconductors. The implications of these results are discussed.
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71.20.Rv Polymers and organic compounds
36.20.-r Macromolecules and polymer molecules

Ferroelectric lead niobate films by pulsed thermal processing

C. V. R. Vasant Kumar, M. Sayer, and R. Pascual

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 2207 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.107057 (3 pages) | Cited 5 times

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Ferroelectric lead niobate (PbNb2O6) exists in an orthorhombic phase at room temperature. The fabrication of lead niobate in this ferroelectric form has often been reported to be difficult due to the stabilization of nonferroelectric phases during processing. In this letter, the stabilization of the orthorhombic phase in magnetron sputtered lead niobate films using ‘‘pulsed thermal processing’’ is reported, and various processing factors which influence the destabilization of this phase are discussed. The room‐temperature dielectric constant and loss tangent of the resulting films at 1 kHz were 320 and 0.4, respectively. Polarization versus electric‐field hysteresis loops showed no saturation, with a remanent polarization of 15 μC/cm2 and a coercive field of 500 kV/cm. The films were highly resistive with a dc conductivity of 1−10 Ω−1 cm−1 at 300 K.
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77.80.-e Ferroelectricity and antiferroelectricity
77.55.-g Dielectric thin films
81.30.Hd Constant-composition solid-solid phase transformations: polymorphic, massive, and order-disorder
81.15.Cd Deposition by sputtering

Fine line structures of ceramic films formed by patterning of metalorganic precursors using photolithography and ion beams

L. S. Hung and L. R. Zheng

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 2210 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.107058 (3 pages) | Cited 3 times

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Fine line structures of ceramic thin films were fabricated by patterning of metalorganic precursors using photolithography and ion beams. A trilevel structure was developed with an outer resist layer to transfer patterns, a silver delineated layer as an implantation mask, and a planar resist layer protecting the precursor film from chemical attacking and sputtering. Ion irradiation through the Ag stencil rendered metal carboxylates insoluble in 2‐ethylhexanoic acid, permitting patterning of the precursor film with patterning features on micron scales. The potential of this technique was demonstrated in patterning of Bi2Sr2CaCu2O8+x and Pb(Zr0.53Ti0.47) thin films.
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85.40.Hp Lithography, masks and pattern transfer
81.05.Je Ceramics and refractories (including borides, carbides, hydrides, nitrides, oxides, and silicides)
81.65.-b Surface treatments

Laser processing of carbon‐implanted Cu, Ni, and Co crystals: An attempt to grow diamond films

S.‐Tong Lee, Samuel Chen, J. Agostinelli, G. Braunstein, L. J. Huang, and W. M. Lau

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 2213 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.107059 (3 pages) | Cited 17 times

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Carbon films have been prepared by laser‐pulse treatment of single crystals of copper, nickel, and cobalt, which have been previously implanted at room temperature with 50 keV carbon ions to a fluence of 1×1018 cm−2. Characterization using Raman scattering, Auger spectroscopy, and transmission electron microscopy showed that the films consisted of amorphous carbon and microcrystalline graphite but not diamond. In addition, an appreciable amount of substrate material was found present embedded in the carbon films.
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68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
81.15.-z Methods of deposition of films and coatings; film growth and epitaxy

Determination of residual stress in Cr‐implanted Al2O3 by glancing angle x‐ray diffraction

E. D. Specht, C. J. Sparks, and C. J. McHargue

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 2216 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.107060 (3 pages) | Cited 13 times

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We report x‐ray diffraction measurements of residual stress in sapphire crystals implanted with Cr+ ions. Stress is determined by measuring both in‐plane and out‐of‐plane lattice constants. Bragg peak positions are measured to determine average stress, while peak widths are measured to determine its variation. Using angles of incidence close to the critical angle for total external reflection of x rays, we compare measurements confined to within ∼2.5 nm of the surface and measurements over the ∼80 nm thickness of the implanted region. These x‐ray residual stress determinations are consistent with those based on indentation crack length, but were less by a factor of 10 than reports based on cantilever bending.
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61.72.up Other materials
62.20.M- Structural failure of materials
61.05.cf X-ray scattering (including small-angle scattering)
61.05.cj X-ray absorption spectroscopy: EXAFS, NEXAFS, XANES, etc.
81.40.Np Fatigue, corrosion fatigue, embrittlement, cracking, fracture, and failure

Experimental study of electromigration in bicrystal aluminum lines

Hai P. Longworth and C. V. Thompson

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 2219 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.107035 (3 pages) | Cited 24 times

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We report a new experimental technique for the study of electromigration in Al lines containing controlled, single, identical grain boundaries with boundary planes perpendicular to the plane of the substrates. We show that failure times of these lines are lognormally distributed; that the median time to failure depends more strongly on the boundary orientations than the types of grain boundaries; that the deviation in the time to failure has a large component not dependent on microstructure; and that both interfacial diffusion and grain boundary diffusion appear to contribute to failure in bicrystal lines, and likely in bamboo and near‐bamboo lines.
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66.30.Qa Electromigration
85.40.Ls Metallization, contacts, interconnects; device isolation
85.40.Qx Microcircuit quality, noise, performance, and failure analysis
85.40.Hp Lithography, masks and pattern transfer

Influence of oxide charge on minority‐carrier lifetime in metal‐oxide‐semiconductor capacitors

A. Meinertzhagen, S. El Rharbi, and M. Jourdain

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 2222 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.107036 (3 pages) | Cited 1 time

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Oxide charge produces some well‐known effects on the capacitance versus voltage and on the oxide current versus voltage measurements of metal‐oxide‐semiconductor capacitors. We report here a shift of the C(ω) and G(ω)/ω curves [G(ω) and C(ω) being respectively the conductance and capacitance] to the lower frequencies which could be related to an increase of the minority‐carrier lifetime.
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85.30.Tv Field effect devices
73.40.Qv Metal-insulator-semiconductor structures (including semiconductor-to-insulator)

Ellipsometry for rapid characterization of Si1−xGex layers

M. Racanelli, C. I. Drowley, N. D. Theodore, R. B. Gregory, H. G. Tompkins, and D. J. Meyer

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 2225 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.107037 (3 pages) | Cited 10 times

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We report on the ability of ellipsometry to rapidly determine the germanium content and the film thickness of Si1−xGex layers deposited on silicon substrates. The technique is used to evaluate thickness on single‐ and for the first time, double‐layer Si/SixGe1−x films. We estimate the refractive index of Si1−xGex from ellipsometry measurements and find that only the real part differs significantly from that of silicon for 0<x<0.30. We examine the sensitivity of ellipsometry to changes in germanium content and film thickness. We find that sensitivity is cyclical with film thickness and, in the best case, ellipsometry can be used to determine germanium content within ±1 at. % or thickness within ±20 Å for x∼0.10.
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68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
78.66.-w Optical properties of specific thin films
07.60.Fs Polarimeters and ellipsometers

Transmission electron microscopy characterization of defects resulting from the polycrystalline silicon buffered local oxidation of silicon isolation process

G. A. Dixit, R. L. Hodges, J. W. Staman, F. R. Bryant, R. Sundaresan, C. C. Wei, and F. T. Liou

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 2228 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.107038 (3 pages) | Cited 3 times

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Polybuffered LOCOS is used for isolation of active devices in submicron integrated circuits. Many papers have reported on the defects resulting from this process. We report, for the first time, on the structure and composition of these defects and relate the defects to a phenomenon similar to the traditional Kooi effect [E. Kooi, J. G. van Lierop, and J. A. Apples, J. Electrochem. Soc. 123, 1117 (1976)].  
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85.40.Hp Lithography, masks and pattern transfer
81.65.-b Surface treatments
68.35.Dv Composition, segregation; defects and impurities
07.79.Cz Scanning tunneling microscopes
61.05.-a Techniques for structure determination

Gas source iodine n‐type doping of molecular beam epitaxially grown CdTe

D. Rajavel and C. J. Summers

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 2231 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.107039 (3 pages) | Cited 20 times

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Highly conductive n‐type CdTe films were grown by molecular beam epitaxy by iodine doping, utilizing ethyliodide as the dopant precursor. The room‐temperature electron concentration increased from 8×1016 to 3×1018 cm−3 for dopant flow rate from 10−5 to 10−2 sccm and the films exhibited very high electron mobilities. The structural and optical properties were determined by x‐ray double crystal rocking curve and photoluminescence measurements. Secondary ion mass spectroscopic analysis indicated a high degree of electrical activity, and sharp dopant profiles. These results demonstrate that iodine is highly effective for the n‐type doping of CdTe.
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68.55.Ln Defects and impurities: doping, implantation, distribution, concentration, etc.
81.15.Hi Molecular, atomic, ion, and chemical beam epitaxy

Room‐temperature growth of AlN thin films by laser ablation

Kanekazu Seki, Xiangqun Xu, Hideo Okabe, Joan M. Frye, and Joshua B. Halpern

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 2234 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.107040 (3 pages) | Cited 39 times

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Excimer laser ablation of compressed AlN powder has been used to grow thin AlN films at room temperature on a variety of substrates. The films have a band gap of 6.15 eV as measured by UV absorption. Examination with a scanning electron microscope and an optical microscope shows that the films are smooth. The IR spectrum has an absorption characteristic of AlN. Growth rates are extremely rapid, exceeding 70 nm/min.
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81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)

Phosphorous doping in low temperature silicon molecular beam epitaxy

E. Friess, J. Nützel, and G. Abstreiter

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 2237 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.107041 (3 pages) | Cited 15 times

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Phosphorus doping with silicon molecular beam epitaxy was studied using a novel design of a solid doping source based on evaporation of highly doped silicon. Doping concentrations up to the level of the source material are possible. Bulklike Hall mobilities can be achieved. No memory effect was detectable in the course of this work. Phosphorus incorporation in the growing silicon film was investigated with secondary ion mass spectrometry. A drastic increase of segregation with growth temperature was found between 320 and 540 °C. This temperature range represents a kinetically limited regime, which also explains the observed enhancement of segregation with reduced growth rate.
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81.15.Hi Molecular, atomic, ion, and chemical beam epitaxy
68.55.Ln Defects and impurities: doping, implantation, distribution, concentration, etc.

35% efficient nonconcentrating novel silicon solar cell

Jianming Li, Ming Chong, Jiancheng Zhu, Yuanjing Li, Jiadong Xu, Peida Wang, Zuoqi Shang, Zhankun Yang, Ronghua Zhu, and Xiolan Cao

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 2240 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.107042 (3 pages) | Cited 57 times

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An energy conversion efficiency of 35% was obtained at 1‐sun, air mass 1.5 for a novel silicon cell. The critical feature of the cell structure is the inclusion of local defect layers near a p‐n junction. The local defect layers were proven to hold the key to achieving the exceptionally high efficiency of the novel cell fabricated via noncomplex processing.
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84.60.Jt Photoelectric conversion
78.30.-j Infrared and Raman spectra
78.40.Fy Semiconductors
61.72.uf Ge and Si
61.72.Bb Theories and models of crystal defects

Epitaxial regrowth of Sb implanted Si1−xGex alloy layers

Z. Atzmon, M. Eizenberg, P. Revesz, J. W. Mayer, S. Q. Hong, and F. Schäffler

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 2243 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.107043 (3 pages) | Cited 17 times

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Solid phase epitaxial regrowth of Sb implanted strained Si1−xGex alloy layers is reported. A set of Si0.92Ge0.08 alloys, MBE grown on (100)Si substrates, were implanted at room temperature with Sb+ ions at an energy of 200 keV and a dose of 1015 ions/cm2. These alloys were annealed in a RTA system at temperatures of 525, 550, and 575 °C for durations between 30 s and 10 min. Backscattering (channeling) measurements show an increase in the regrowth rate compared to furnace annealed Sb implanted (100)Si. Hall effect measurements show an increase in the carrier concentration as the amorphous/crystalline interface propagates to the surface. The concentration reaches a maximal value which exceeds the maximum solid solubility of Sb in Si at the annealing temperature by a factor of six. There is a reverse annealing tendency for longer annealing times.
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61.72.uf Ge and Si
81.15.Np Solid phase epitaxy; growth from solid phases
68.55.Ln Defects and impurities: doping, implantation, distribution, concentration, etc.

Photoluminescence from hot carriers in low‐temperature‐grown gallium arsenide

H. M. van Driel, X.‐Q. Zhou, W. W. Rühle, J. Kuhl, and K. Ploog

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 2246 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.107044 (3 pages) | Cited 12 times

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Band‐to‐band photoluminescence spectra of GaAs grown at 200 °C by molecular beam epitaxy have been measured as a function of lattice temperature (10<TL<290 K), laser photon energy (1.62<Ep<2.07 eV) and excitation intensity during 5 ps excitation. Carrier recombination, previously reported to be as fast as 300 fs in this material, displays at most a weak density dependence, consistent with a monomolecular mechanism. The spectra correspond to quasi‐steady‐state carrier distributions which evolve from nonthermal to thermal character as the density increases from 1016 to 1018 cm−3. For the thermal distributions, the characteristic temperature depends strongly on Ep; values near 1000 K are obtained for Ep≳1.85 eV. The results are related to ultrafast carrier recombination, intervalley transfer, and thermalization.
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78.55.Cr III-V semiconductors
73.61.Ey III-V semiconductors
73.50.Gr Charge carriers: generation, recombination, lifetime, trapping, mean free paths

Critical thicknesses of highly strained InGaAs layers grown on InP by molecular beam epitaxy

M. Gendry, V. Drouot, C. Santinelli, and G. Hollinger

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 2249 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.107045 (3 pages) | Cited 16 times

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The growth and relaxation of highly strained In82Ga18As and InAs epilayers grown by molecular beam epitaxy, at 525 and 450 °C, on InGaAs lattice matched (LM) to InP, have been investigated using reflection high energy electron diffraction (RHEED) techniques. RHEED oscillations, three‐dimensional growth mode onsets, and relaxation onsets have been measured. Strong strain and temperature effects have been observed on both growth mode and plastic relaxation mechanism. It is suggested that plastic relaxation could occur through two competing mechanisms, misfit dislocations or ‘‘3D island dislocations’’ and that the actual mechanism can be predicted using specific temperature dependent laws for the critical thicknesses.
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81.15.Hi Molecular, atomic, ion, and chemical beam epitaxy
61.05.jh Low-energy electron diffraction (LEED) and reflection high-energy electron diffraction (RHEED)
68.35.Rh Phase transitions and critical phenomena
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