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25 May 1992

Volume 60, Issue 21, pp. 2577-2699

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Thermosetting nonlinear optical polymer: Polyurethane with disperse red 19 side groups

Yongqiang Shi, William H. Steier, Mai Chen, Luping Yu, and Larry R. Dalton

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 2577 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106914 (3 pages) | Cited 29 times

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A new thermosetting second‐order nonlinear optical polyurethane polymer with disperse red 19 pendant groups was studied by second‐harmonic generation and electro‐optic modulation methods. The polymer can be crosslinked by thermal curing during electric field poling. The electro‐optic coefficient r13 measured with a Mach–Zehnder interferometer ranged from 5 pm/V at 800 nm to 13 pm/V at 633 nm. The polymer crosslinked during poling showed no significant decay of the nonlinearity at room temperature for thousands of hours. A long‐term thermal stability of the dipole alignment at an elevated temperature, 90 °C, was demonstrated. The thermosetting polymer showed improved alignment stability under ultraviolet exposure.
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42.70.Jk Polymers and organics
42.70.Nq Other nonlinear optical materials; photorefractive and semiconductor materials
42.65.Ky Frequency conversion; harmonic generation, including higher-order harmonic generation

Semiconductor distributed feedback lasers with quantum well or superlattice gratings for index or gain‐coupled optical feedback

W. T. Tsang, F. S. Choa, M. C. Wu, Y. K. Chen, R. A. Logan, S. N. G. Chu, A. M. Sergent, and C. A. Burrus

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 2580 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106915 (3 pages) | Cited 13 times

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We introduce a semiconductor distributed feedback (DFB) in which the grating is fabricated out of quantum well (QW) or superlattice multilayers. This approach provides a very simple and effective scheme for achieving gain (loss)‐coupled DFB lasers. The present idea was successfully demonstrated with a 1.55‐μm wavelength 6‐QW In0.6Ga0.4As (5 nm)/InGaAsP (band‐gap wavelength=1.25 μm, 18.6 nm) separate confinement heterostructure DFB laser utilizing only a 2‐QW In0.62Ga0.38As (4 nm)/InP (9.3 nm) as the grating.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.60.-v Laser optical systems: design and operation

Measurements of the intensity noise of a broadly tunable, erbium‐doped fiber ring laser, relative to the standard quantum limit

Steve Sanders, Jay W. Dawson, Namkyoo Park, and Kerry J. Vahala

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 2583 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106916 (3 pages) | Cited 5 times

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The intensity noise of an erbium‐doped fiber ring laser is measured relative to the standard quantum limit. Over a tuning range of 24 nm, the noise power is within 20 dB of the shot noise floor and varies linearly with laser output power. Oscillations in the noise power spectrum are observed and attributed to beating of the lasing mode with other, strongly damped cavity modes.  
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42.55.Rz Doped-insulator lasers and other solid state lasers
42.60.Mi Dynamical laser instabilities; noisy laser behavior

Distributed feedback lasers with distributed phase‐shift structure

G. Chen, S. R. Seshadri, and F. Cerrina

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 2586 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106917 (3 pages) | Cited 8 times

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Distributed feedback (DFB) lasers with distributed phase‐shift (DPS) structures are suggested for reducing the spatial hole burning in conventional phase‐shifted DFB lasers. Solving the coupled‐mode equations subject to suitable boundary conditions, we have determined the threshold gain condition of a symmetric distributed phase‐shift distributed feedback (DPSDFB) laser as well as the internal photon intensity distribution. The results show that by distributing the phase shift to a greater extent, the spatial hole burning can be reduced significantly and a large threshold gain difference between lowest gain oscillation modes can be maintained over a large phase‐shift range. Moreover, a properly designed DPSDFB laser does not pose extra requirements on its fabrication.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes

Electro‐optic, piezoelectric, and dielectric properties of zinc tris thiourea sulfate

Uma B. Ramabadran, David E. Zelmon, and Gretchen C. Kennedy

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 2589 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106918 (3 pages) | Cited 23 times

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Recently, it has been demonstrated that semiorganic materials have potential for very efficient nonlinear optical devices. Among many recently reported materials is zinc tris thiourea sulfate. We report measurements of the electro‐optic, piezoelectric, and dielectric constants of this new material.
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42.70.Nq Other nonlinear optical materials; photorefractive and semiconductor materials
42.70.Jk Polymers and organics

Blue continuously pumped upconversion lasing in Tm:YLiF4

T. Hebert, R. Wannemacher, R. M. Macfarlane, and W. Lenth

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 2592 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106919 (3 pages) | Cited 66 times

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Blue upconversion laser operation in Tm:YLiF4 at 450.2 nm on the 1D2→3F4 transition, and at 483.0 nm on the 1G4→3H6 transition has been achieved using cw pumping with Ti Sapphire and DCM dye lasers. The 450.2‐nm laser was excited by sequential two‐photon absorption with 784.5‐nm and 648‐nm laser sources and was operated at temperatures up to 70 K. The 483.0‐nm laser was pumped with a single red‐dye laser using a wavelength resonant only with absorption from a metastable intermediate state but not with absorption from the ground state. With this avalanche absorption pumping scheme, 483.0‐nm laser emission was observed up to 160 K.
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42.55.Rz Doped-insulator lasers and other solid state lasers
42.65.Ky Frequency conversion; harmonic generation, including higher-order harmonic generation

Effects of deposition parameters on the refractive index in plasma polymerized methyl methacrylate thin films

J. A. Tobin and D. D. Denton

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 2595 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106920 (3 pages) | Cited 10 times

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Plasma polymerization can be used to deposit thin films whose properties significantly differ from those of conventionally synthesized linear or cross‐linked polymers. We investigate the plasma polymerization of methyl methacrylate for use in microelectronic and photonic applications. The deposition system is a 13.56 MHz parallel plate reactor. The effects of varying rf power and neutral pressure on deposition rate and refractive index in the visible are examined. It is found that the deposition rate can be varied from 50–500 Å/min over a pressure range of 40–300 mT. In addition, the refractive index can be varied from 1.5 to 1.6 in the visible by varying the rf power from 10 to 50 W. Possible applications in photonics include smoothly varying graded index and multilayer structures.
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81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)
81.15.-z Methods of deposition of films and coatings; film growth and epitaxy
78.66.Qn Polymers; organic compounds

Experimental study of virtual cathode oscillator in uniform magnetic field

K. G. Kostov, N. A. Nikolov, I. P. Spassovsky, and V. A. Spassov

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 2598 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.107472 (3 pages) | Cited 4 times

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Results from 350 kV, 7 kA virtual cathode oscillator experiments are presented. High‐frequency (11–17.6 GHz) high‐power (15±7 MW) microwave radiation by a virtual cathode oscillator with a guide magnetic field has been obtained. It has been found that the oscillating virtual cathode and the beam electrons trapped between the real and the virtual cathodes radiate microwaves at two distinct frequencies. The dominant source of radiation is the reflexing electrons. A nonsymmetrical microwave mode TM11 has been observed.
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84.70.+p High-current and high-voltage technology: power systems; power transmission lines and cables
84.40.Fe Microwave tubes (e.g., klystrons, magnetrons, traveling-wave, backward-wave tubes, etc.)
52.75.-d Plasma devices

Electron cyclotron resonance plasma deposition of silicon nitride: Effect of very low rf substrate bias

K. A. Buckle, J. Rodgers, K. Pastor, C. Constantine, and D. Johnson

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 2601 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106921 (3 pages) | Cited 8 times

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Plasma deposition of SiN on silicon substrates in a microwave (2.45 GHz) electron cyclotron resonance SiH4/N2/He, in the ratio 4/10/10, discharge has been investigated as a function of rf (40 MHz) self‐biasing of the sample. Low levels of rf bias (0–10 W) were investigated and are reported in this letter. The effect of bias was measured for the deposited films with respect to refractive index, etch rate in BHF, Si—H bonding, and the intrinsic film stress. All depositions were conducted at or near room temperature to evaluate the effect of the applied rf bias on film density. All parameters examined indicated that low levels of rf bias help prepare a high quality, dense film at very low substrate temperatures.
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81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)

Surface‐selective x‐ray topographic observations of mechanochemical polished silicon surfaces using synchrotron radiation

Shigeru Kimura, Jun’ichiro Mizuki, Junji Matsui, and Tetsuya Ishikawa

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 2604 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106922 (3 pages) | Cited 16 times

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Surface‐selective topographic observations have been performed by extremely asymmetric diffraction, in which the glancing angle of the incident x rays is near the critical angle of total reflection. This was achieved by using the wavelength tunability of synchrotron radiation. Mechanochemical polished surfaces of Si(001) and Si(111) wafers were investigated. Strain images arising from the polished surfaces were obtained by selecting the penetration depth to be several tens of nanometers.
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61.05.cf X-ray scattering (including small-angle scattering)
61.05.cj X-ray absorption spectroscopy: EXAFS, NEXAFS, XANES, etc.
68.35.B- Structure of clean surfaces (and surface reconstruction)
81.65.-b Surface treatments

Nucleation and growth mechanism of hemispherical grain polycrystalline silicon

N. Matsuo, H. Ogawa, T. Kouzaki, and S. Okada

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 2607 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106923 (3 pages) | Cited 3 times

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The formation of the nucleus [Watanabe et al., Extended Abstracts of the 22nd Conference on Solid State Devices and Materials (1990), p. 873] is performed at low O2 partial pressure during annealing and the density of HSG nuclei increases as the annealing time becomes longer. HSGs grow upward from the amorphous silicon surface, and twin formations are generated in almost all the HSGs. For approximately 50% of whole HSGs, polycrystalline silicon grows downward from the bottom of the HSG. A common heterogeneous material both for the nucleus formation of HSG and for that of polycrystalline silicon growing downward is thought to be formed at the interface between HSG and polycrystalline silicon.
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81.15.-z Methods of deposition of films and coatings; film growth and epitaxy
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
68.35.Fx Diffusion; interface formation

Gallium arsenide surface reconstructions during organometallic vapor‐phase epitaxy

F. J. Lamelas, P. H. Fuoss, P. Imperatori, D. W. Kisker, G. B. Stephenson, and S. Brennan

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 2610 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106924 (3 pages) | Cited 31 times

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In situ surface x‐ray scattering studies of the GaAs(001) surface were used to determine whether specific surface reconstructions occur during organometallic vapor‐phase epitaxy. Prior to growth, we find that surfaces heated in the presence of As form a c(4×4) structure, while those heated in the absence of organometallics or in Ga form two similar fourfold reconstructions. We find no evidence for the presence of any surface reconstruction during the actual layer‐by‐layer growth process.
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81.15.Kk Vapor phase epitaxy; growth from vapor phase
81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)
68.35.B- Structure of clean surfaces (and surface reconstruction)

Coalescence of nanosized copper colloid particles formed in Cu‐implanted SiO2 glass by implantation of fluorine ions: Formation of violet copper colloids

Hideo Hosono, Yoshihiro Abe, and Noriaki Matsunami

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 2613 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106897 (3 pages) | Cited 30 times

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Fluorine ions were implanted at an energy of 40 keV at room temperature into Cu‐implanted (160 keV, 6×1016 ions/cm2) SiO2 glass substrates in which implanted coppers occur in the form of nanosized metallic colloid particles with spherical shape. After the F implantation, the peak position of a band due to plasma oscillation shifted from 2.21 eV (562 nm) to 2.10 eV (591 nm) and the color changed from bulk copperlike to deep violet, visually. The bimodal distribution of depth Cu concentrations became distinct after the implantation. Cross‐sectional transmission electron microscopy observation revealed that the distribution of copper colloid particles remains bimodal in shape and the particles coalesce with each other to form larger colloid particles with nonspherical shape. Fourier transform IR attenuated total reflection spectra showed that implanted F ions are incorporated in the form of O3Si‐F units breaking continuity of the Si‐O‐Si network, suggesting that reduction of local viscosity in collision cascade regions during the implantation plays an important role in the observed coalescence.
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42.70.Nq Other nonlinear optical materials; photorefractive and semiconductor materials
61.80.Jh Ion radiation effects
61.72.up Other materials

High‐fluidity chemical vapor deposition of silicon dioxide

H. Shin, S. Miyazaki, and M. Hirose

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 2616 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106898 (3 pages) | Cited 6 times

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Silicon dioxide has been deposited by the glow discharge decomposition of SiH4 and O2 at substrate temperatures below −80 °C, where the thermal reaction on the surface was basically suppressed. Ion flux onto the growth surface was significantly reduced by employing a triode reactor. Oxide deposition onto surfaces with narrow features proceeds from the bottom of a trench or groove and results in planarization of the topography. Such high‐fluidity chemical vapor deposition is inferred to occur through the formation of liquified precursors on the cooled surface.
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81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology

Variation of microtwin content with thickness in cadmium telluride films grown on sapphire by metalorganic chemical vapor deposition

H. L. Glass and M. R. Appleby Woods

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 2619 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106899 (3 pages) | Cited 1 time

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X‐ray diffraction was used to measure microtwinning in (111) CdTe epitaxial films grown on (00⋅1) sapphire substrates by metalorganic chemical vapor deposition. The concentration of microtwins is high near the interface but drops off rapidly with distance. For films grown to thicknesses up to ≊10 μm, the microtwin content is constant and relatively low (much less than 1 vol %) away from the interface. For films grown more than ≊10 μm thick there is a substantial increase in the microtwin content. These microtwins are concentrated near the film surface.
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81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)
68.55.Ln Defects and impurities: doping, implantation, distribution, concentration, etc.

Method to obtain uniform bookshelf textures in smectic C∗ liquid crystals

A. Jákli and A. Saupe

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 2622 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106900 (3 pages) | Cited 16 times

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A new method is described to obtain homogeneous bookshelf textures in thin films of ferroelectric smectic C∗ material with short pitch and high Ps. The surfaces were coated with silane to obtain a homeotropic texture. The sample was realigned to a homogeneous bookshelf texture under simultaneous application of an electric field and shearing. The texture is stable and gives a very good contrast (∼80) under permanent drive condition.    
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61.30.-v Liquid crystals
42.79.Kr Display devices, liquid-crystal devices
77.80.-e Ferroelectricity and antiferroelectricity

Characterization of photoluminescent porous Si by small‐angle scattering of x rays

V. Vezin, P. Goudeau, A. Naudon, A. Halimaoui, and G. Bomchil

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 2625 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106901 (3 pages) | Cited 40 times

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A microstructural study of high‐porosity porous silicon layers formed on lightly P‐doped wafers has been performed by x‐ray small‐angle scattering (SAXS) using the powerful and parallel beam of the synchrotron radiation. When the porosity of the sample is increased from 55% to 85% there is a continuous modification in the shape of the scattering profiles. The silicon skeleton mass fractal dimension decreases continuously. For porosity around 85%, the value for which the sample starts to display a strong photoluminescence at room temperature, there is a large increase in the pore size. The scattering profiles are characteristic of an isotropic three‐dimensional structure.
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78.55.Hx Other solid inorganic materials
61.05.cf X-ray scattering (including small-angle scattering)
61.05.cj X-ray absorption spectroscopy: EXAFS, NEXAFS, XANES, etc.
61.43.Fs Glasses
61.43.-j Disordered solids
61.44.Br Quasicrystals
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology

Direct observation of Si delta‐doped GaAs by transmission electron microscopy

D. G. Liu, J. C. Fan, C. P. Lee, C. M. Tsai, K. H. Chang, D. C. Liou, T. L. Lee, and L. J. Chen

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 2628 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106902 (3 pages) | Cited 10 times

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Direct observation of the Si delta‐doped layer in GaAs has been achieved by high resolution transmission electron microscopy. Samples with different Si doses, from half a monolayer to two monolayers, were studied. The observed spreading of the delta‐doped layer showed that Si atoms are largely confined in five monolayers at most (in the highest dose case), indicating excellent confinements of dopants in GaAs. From the images, the Si atoms were uniformly distributed in the doped layer, no cluster formation was observed. For delta‐doped GaAs grown at low temperature (480 °C), stacking faults originated from the doped layers were observed. These faults were thought to be caused by the large unrelaxed strain in the low‐temperature grown GaAs.  
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68.55.Ln Defects and impurities: doping, implantation, distribution, concentration, etc.
81.15.Hi Molecular, atomic, ion, and chemical beam epitaxy

Renormalization of the one‐dimensional π‐π∗ band gap on the Ge(111) 2×1 surface

R. Haight and M. Baeumler

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 2631 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106903 (3 pages) | Cited 1 time

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Using angle resolved laser photoemission spectroscopy we have measured the transient narrowing of the surface state band gap on the cleaved Ge(111) 2×1 surface. The reconstruction of this surface results in the formation of one‐dimensional π bonded chains of atoms which give rise to bonding and antibonding bands whose energy/wave vector dispersions are one‐dimensional as well. Photoexcitation of this surface produces a transient π∗ population which, in turn, leads to an observed narrowing of the surface band gap. We have investigated this renormalization as a function of surface carrier density and laser excitation fluence.
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73.25.+i Surface conductivity and carrier phenomena
73.20.At Surface states, band structure, electron density of states
78.47.-p Spectroscopy of solid state dynamics
81.65.-b Surface treatments

Passivation of (111) Si/SiO2 interface by fluorine

X. W. Wang and T. P. Ma

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 2634 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106878 (3 pages) | Cited 10 times

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High quality Si/SiO2 interface and improved oxide reliability have been achieved on (111) Si substrate by introducing NF3 into the oxidation furnace. The interface properties and the radiation hardness of the fluorinated (111) metal oxide semiconductor capacitors have been studied as a function of the amount of NF3 introduced.
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73.40.Qv Metal-insulator-semiconductor structures (including semiconductor-to-insulator)
85.30.Tv Field effect devices
73.20.Hb Impurity and defect levels; energy states of adsorbed species

Screening effects in (111)B AlGaAs‐InGaAs single quantum well heterostructures

T. S. Moise, L. J. Guido, R. C. Barker, J. O. White, and A. R. Kost

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 2637 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106879 (3 pages) | Cited 26 times

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A reduction in luminescence decay time and a shift toward higher optical transition energy is observed in response to an increase in photogenerated carrier density for a p‐i‐n (111)B Al0.15Ga0.85As‐In0.055Ga0.945As strained‐layer single quantum well heterostructure. These effects, which are attributed to free‐carrier screening of the strain‐induced electric field, are expected to be useful for designing novel optoelectronic devices that exploit the unique electro‐optic properties of (111) strained quantum wells.
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78.66.Fd III-V semiconductors
78.66.Hf II-VI semiconductors
78.55.Cr III-V semiconductors
77.65.-j Piezoelectricity and electromechanical effects

Absorption spectra of ZnSe‐ZnS strained‐layer superlattices grown on (001) GaAs by molecular beam epitaxy

Aidong Shen, Hailong Wang, Zhijiang Wang, and Shaozhe Lü

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 2640 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106880 (2 pages) | Cited 7 times

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The absorption spectra of ZnSe‐ZnS strained‐layer superlattices were measured at temperatures ranging from 16 K to room temperature. Three excitonic absorption peaks corresponding to 1E‐1HH, 1E‐1LH, and 1E‐3HH transitions were observed for the first time.
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78.66.Fd III-V semiconductors
78.66.Hf II-VI semiconductors
78.40.Ha Other nonmetallic inorganics
81.15.Hi Molecular, atomic, ion, and chemical beam epitaxy

High resolution x‐ray diffraction analysis of annealed low‐temperature gallium arsenide

R. J. Matyi, M. R. Melloch, and J. M. Woodall

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 2642 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106881 (3 pages) | Cited 19 times

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High resolution x‐ray diffraction methods have been used to characterize GaAs grown at low substrate temperatures by molecular beam epitaxy and to examine the effects of post‐growth annealing on the structure of the layers. Double crystal rocking curves from the as‐deposited epitaxial layer show well‐defined interference fringes, indicating a high level of structural perfection despite the presence of excess arsenic. Annealing at temperatures from 700 to 900 °C resulted in a decrease in the perpendicular lattice mismatch between the GaAs grown at low temperature and the substrate from 0.133% to 0.016% and a decrease (but not total elimination) of the visibility of the interference fringes. Triple‐crystal diffraction scans around the 004 point in reciprocal space exhibited an increase in the apparent mosaic spread of the epitaxial layer with increasing anneal temperature. The observations are explained in terms of the growth of arsenic precipitates in the epitaxial layer.
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81.15.Hi Molecular, atomic, ion, and chemical beam epitaxy
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology

Electrical properties of oxide‐nitride dielectric films incorporating passivation oxide on polycrystalline silicon for advanced dynamic random access memory stacked capacitors

Hiang C. Chan, Viju K. Mathews, and Pierre C. Fazan

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 2645 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106882 (3 pages) | Cited 2 times

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We demonstrate that electron trapping in oxide/nitride (ON) dielectric films with a passivation oxide on rugged polycrystalline silicon is lower than in those without passivation oxide. The leakage current at high field through the Si3N4 films incorporating a passivation oxide is smaller than through Si3N4 films without passivation oxide. The deposited passivation oxide allows the formation of thinner Si3N4 films and also reduces the leakage current through Si3N4 films at high field. Our results show that oxide‐nitride layers on deposited passivation oxides have the low leakage current, tight dielectric breakdown distribution, and trapping characteristics suitable for advanced dynamic random access memory (DRAM) stacked capacitors.
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77.55.-g Dielectric thin films
85.30.Tv Field effect devices
84.32.Tt Capacitors

Diffusive electrical conduction in high‐speed p‐i‐n photodetectors

H. Schneider, E. C. Larkins, J. D. Ralston, J. Fleissner, G. Bender, and P. Koidl

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 2648 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106883 (3 pages) | Cited 9 times

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We report on time‐resolved photocurrent measurements in InGaAs/GaAs‐quantum well p‐i‐n photodetector structures in which the photocurrent is optically excited and electrically detected at different locations on the sample. As the electrical pulse propagates out from the point of excitation, a temporal broadening of the signal is induced by the in‐plane resistance of the doped contact layers. This temporal broadening agrees quantitatively with analytical solutions obtained from the diffusion equation used to describe the lateral voltage propagation. We discuss the significance of this temporal behavior for the optimization of high‐speed photodetectors. Finally, we point out the relationship between our optical‐pump/electrical‐probe experiments and the all‐optical pump/probe experiments reported by Livescu et al.
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73.40.Kp III-V semiconductor-to-semiconductor contacts, p-n junctions, and heterojunctions
73.50.Pz Photoconduction and photovoltaic effects
85.60.Gz Photodetectors (including infrared and CCD detectors)
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