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15 Jun 1992

Volume 60, Issue 24, pp. 2951-3065

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Electron beam pumping of the 546.1 nm mercury laser

R. L. Rhoades and J. T. Verdeyen

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 2951 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106825 (3 pages) | Cited 2 times

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The first known instance of electron beam pumped lasing on the 546.1 nm transition in mercury (Hg) is reported. This has been achieved using high‐energy electrons to create excitation and ionization in a coaxial diode chamber containing a mixture of noble gases with a small amount of mercury vapor. The kinetic processes within the resulting partially ionized plasma favor the production of mercury ions and ion complexes containing mercury with subsequent recombination with electrons favoring the production of the 73S state of Hg, the upper laser level.
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42.55.Lt Gas lasers including excimer and metal-vapor lasers
42.60.-v Laser optical systems: design and operation

Second quantized state oscillation and wavelength switching in strained‐layer multiquantum‐well lasers

T. R. Chen, Yuhua Zhuang, Y. J. Xu, B. Zhao, A. Yariv, J. Ungar, and Se Oh

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 2954 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106800 (3 pages) | Cited 7 times

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The dependence of lasing wavelength on cavity length has been systemically studied in strained‐layer single, double, and triple quantum‐well InGaAs lasers. Lasing from the second quantized state has been observed for the first time in double and triple quantum‐well lasers. A wide range (∼500 Å) wavelength switching between the first and second quantized states has been demonstrated by controlling the injection current and/or the operation temperature.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.60.-v Laser optical systems: design and operation

Near‐field differential scanning optical microscope with atomic force regulation

R. Toledo‐Crow, P. C. Yang, Y. Chen, and M. Vaez‐Iravani

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 2957 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106801 (3 pages) | Cited 178 times

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We present the design and describe the operation of a scanning probe microscope which simultaneously provides the attractive mode force and near‐field optical images of objects. In this technique, the force signal is used to track the topography, thus allowing the optical signal primarily to show variations in transmissivity. A number of results are presented on the application of the technique to imaging different samples.
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07.60.Pb Conventional optical microscopes
68.35.B- Structure of clean surfaces (and surface reconstruction)

K2 yellow‐band and Rb2 orange‐band excimer emissions by electron‐beam excitation

Da Xing, Ken‐ichi Ueda, and Hiroshi Takuma

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 2960 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.107467 (3 pages) | Cited 7 times

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Amplified spontaneous emissions of the K2 yellow and Rb2 orange diffuse bands were observed from e‐beam‐excited mixtures of K/K2 or Rb/Rb2 vapor with argon buffer gas. The continuum spectra centered at 574 and 604 nm were attributed to triplet‐triplet K2 and Rb2 23Πg→13Σu+ bound‐free transitions, respectively. The dissociative recombination of K3+ or Rb3+ is discussed as an efficient formation process of upper states by electron‐beam pumping.
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42.55.Lt Gas lasers including excimer and metal-vapor lasers

Soft x‐ray (97‐eV) phase retardation using transmission multilayers

J. B. Kortright, H. Kimura, V. Nikitin, K. Mayama, M. Yamamoto, and M. Yanagihara

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 2963 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106802 (3 pages) | Cited 34 times

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Phase retardation as a function of incidence angle of 97‐eV soft x rays from a laser plasma source on transmission through a free‐standing molybdenum/silicon multilayer was measured using a multilayer polarizer and a polarization analyzer. The maximum retardation of 49° between σ and π components is over 2/3 that calculated for an ideal structure. At maximum retardation the transmittance ratio of σ‐ to π‐amplitudes was 0.66 and the intensity transmittance, averaged for both components, was 20%. These multilayer structures will be useful in soft x‐ray polarization applications.
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78.20.Fm Birefringence
61.05.C- X-ray diffraction and scattering
78.66.-w Optical properties of specific thin films
78.67.-n Optical properties of low-dimensional, mesoscopic, and nanoscale materials and structures

Monolithic integration of normally‐on and normally‐off asymmetric Fabry–Perot modulators by selective antireflection coating

K. W. Goossen, J. E. Cunningham, and W. Y. Jan

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 2966 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106803 (3 pages) | Cited 6 times

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We present asymmetric Fabry–Perot quantum‐well modulators which are overbalanced, so that at zero bias at the exciton wavelength reflectivity is high. As bias is applied and the quantum‐well absorption decreases, the optical cavity balances, nulling reflection. By partially antireflection coating, at zero bias the optical cavity is balanced, so that the reflectivity is near zero, and increases with bias. Therefore, we can integrate normally‐on and normally‐off high‐contrast modulators by selective AR coating. With 10 V bias, we obtain 11:1 contrast ratio for the normally‐on devices and 8:1 for the normally‐off devices.
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42.79.Hp Optical processors, correlators, and modulators
42.79.Ta Optical computers, logic elements, interconnects, switches; neural networks
42.65.Pc Optical bistability, multistability, and switching, including local field effects

Highly stable self‐mode locking and the longitudinal mode structure in CuBr laser

Jihong Geng, Guiyan Zhang, Xiudong Song, and Fucheng Lin

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 2969 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106779 (2 pages) | Cited 3 times

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Highly stable and complete modulation self‐mode locking pulses at 510.6 and 578.2 nm have been achieved simultaneously by suppressing the high‐order transverse modes in a longitudinal discharge CuBr laser. The separated longitudinal modes of the laser line are reported for the first time. The different output features of the self‐mode locking pulses have been discussed for various cavity lengths.
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42.55.Lt Gas lasers including excimer and metal-vapor lasers
42.60.Fc Modulation, tuning, and mode locking

Tunable coupled‐quantum‐well laser controlled by an electric field

L. Y. Liu, E. E. Mendez, and H. Meier

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 2971 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106780 (3 pages) | Cited 24 times

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We propose a novel field‐effect semiconductor laser whose wavelength can be tuned by an electric field parallel to the growth direction of two tightly coupled quantum wells in the active region. We have demonstrated the concept by optically pumping a laser heterostructure whose active region consisted of two 50 Å GaAs wells separated by a 20 Å Ga0.77Al0.23As potential barrier, in which, at 5 K, we have achieved tuning of the stimulated emission by more than 7 nm.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
85.30.Tv Field effect devices
73.40.Kp III-V semiconductor-to-semiconductor contacts, p-n junctions, and heterojunctions
42.60.-v Laser optical systems: design and operation

Effects of nonuniform current injection in GaInAsP/InP vertical‐ cavity lasers

Hiroshi Wada, Dubravko I. Babić, Masayuki Ishikawa, and John E. Bowers

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 2974 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106781 (3 pages) | Cited 6 times

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We systematically measured the active‐area dependence of the threshold current density of GaInAsP/InP vertical‐cavity lasers at various temperatures. The threshold current density was found to increase monotonically with increasing active area, with the effect becoming more pronounced at higher temperature. This phenomenon is due to nonuniform current injection into the active region.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.60.-v Laser optical systems: design and operation

Narrow‐linewidth operation of broad‐stripe single quantum well laser diodes in a grazing incidence external cavity

P. Gavrilovic, A. V. Chelnokov, M. S. O’Neill, and D. M. Beyea

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 2977 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106782 (3 pages) | Cited 2 times

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An external‐cavity semiconductor laser employing a grazing‐incidence grating and 100‐μm stripe gain‐guided laser diodes is described. The laser oscillates in a single axial and spatial mode at currents below the free‐running threshold of the diode. A maximum single‐frequency power of 30 mW is obtained. The lasing wavelength is tunable over 300 Å. At higher drive currents, the output contains multiple axial and spatial modes, with a linewidth of 4 GHz. The maximum continuous output power is 230 mW.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.60.Da Resonators, cavities, amplifiers, arrays, and rings

On the debris phenomenon with laser‐sputtered polymers

Roger Kelly, Antonio Miotello, Bodil Braren, and Charles E. Otis

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 2980 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.107444 (3 pages) | Cited 23 times

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The sputtering of polymer films with 248 or 308 nm laser pulses causes two groups of particles to be emitted. Light particles are emitted more rapidly and escape to form a shock wave. Heavy particles are emitted more slowly and under some conditions are impeded by the light ones, expand sideways, and leave debris on the target surface. Debris formation can be understood from ordinary gas dynamics where it is equivalent to recondensation beyond the bombarded spot. This is shown by numerical solution of the flow equations.
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79.20.Ds Laser-beam impact phenomena
81.05.Lg Polymers and plastics; rubber; synthetic and natural fibers; organometallic and organic materials
81.65.-b Surface treatments
51.40.+p Acoustical properties

Formation of TiN‐encapsulated copper structures in a NH3 ambient

Jian Li, J. W. Mayer, Y. Shacham‐Diamand, and E. G. Colgan

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 2983 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106783 (3 pages) | Cited 28 times

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A TiN‐encapsulated copper structure was made by annealing a Cu‐10 at. %Ti alloy film evaporated on a SiO2/Si(100) substrate at 550 °C in a NH3 ambient. A fast heating rate (70 °C/min) to 550 °C can effectively suppress the formation of Cu3Ti and enhance the TiNx formation near the surface of the copper film. Oxygen incorporation in the TiNx layer was found by Auger depth profiling measurement. This self‐encapsulated Cu structure exhibits good adhesion to SiO2 and oxidation resistance.
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85.40.Ls Metallization, contacts, interconnects; device isolation
81.05.Bx Metals, semimetals, and alloys
66.30.Ny Chemical interdiffusion; diffusion barriers

X‐ray diffraction determination of interfacial roughness correlation in SixGe1−x/Si and GaAs/AlxGa1−xAs superlattices

Y. H. Phang, D. E. Savage, T. F. Kuech, M. G. Lagally, J. S. Park, and K. L. Wang

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 2986 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106784 (3 pages) | Cited 15 times

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Vertically correlated roughness in SixGe1−x/Si and GaAs/AlxGa1−xAs superlattice films has been investigated. In all films, a significant fraction of the total roughness is correlated with lateral correlation lengths from ∼1000 to ∼4500 Å.
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68.65.-k Low-dimensional, mesoscopic, nanoscale and other related systems: structure and nonelectronic properties
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
61.05.cf X-ray scattering (including small-angle scattering)
61.05.cj X-ray absorption spectroscopy: EXAFS, NEXAFS, XANES, etc.

Radiation‐induced E′ centers in H2‐annealed oxide films

M. E. Zvanut, R. E. Stahlbush, and W. E. Carlos

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 2989 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106785 (3 pages) | Cited 8 times

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In oxides fabricated by thermal oxidation or ion implantation, an order‐of‐magnitude increase is observed in the concentration of radiation‐induced E′ centers when the oxide is first exposed to H2 at temperatures greater than 600 °C. To the authors’ knowledge, we report the first data indicating that preirradiation hydrogen annealing of thermal oxides causes a large increase in the concentration of radiation‐induced E′ centers. We discuss evidence suggesting that the hydrogen anneal creates a new E′ precursor, Si—H, from Si—Si bonds.
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68.55.Ln Defects and impurities: doping, implantation, distribution, concentration, etc.
61.72.Bb Theories and models of crystal defects
61.80.-x Physical radiation effects, radiation damage

Mechanical properties of 3C silicon carbide

Lijun Tong, Mehran Mehregany, and Lawrence G. Matus

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 2992 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106786 (3 pages) | Cited 54 times

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The residual stress and Young’s modulus of 3C silicon carbide (SiC) epitaxial films deposited on silicon substrates were measured by load‐deflection measurements using suspended SiC diaphragms fabricated with silicon micromachining techniques. The film’s residual stress was tensile and averaged 274 MPa while the in‐plane Young’s modulus averaged 394 GPa. In addition, the bending moment due to the residual stress variation through the thickness of the film was determined by measuring the deflection of free‐standing 3C‐SiC cantilever beams. The bending moment was in the range of 2.6×10−8–4.2×10−8 N m.
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68.60.Bs Mechanical and acoustical properties

Epitaxial growth of Be on α‐Al2O3

Judith A. Ruffner, J. M. Slaughter, and Charles M. Falco

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 2995 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106787 (3 pages) | Cited 3 times

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We report the growth of epitaxial single‐crystal (0001) hcp‐Be on (0001) α‐Al2O3 substrates using molecular beam epitaxy. Thin films were characterized in situ with reflection high energy electron diffraction, and ex situ with ion beam analysis, electron microscopy, atomic force microscopy, and a variety of x‐ray diffraction techniques. The in‐plane orientation of films grown at substrate temperatures T in the range 10 °C<T<270 °C is Be[1100] ∥α‐Al2O3[1210] and Be[1210] ∥α‐Al2O3[1100], while at T=500 °C the Be is aligned with the substrate. At T=10 °C the films are smooth, but the roughness increases with increasing T. At T=500 °C the crystal perfection improves dramatically but the Be forms large islands.
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81.15.Hi Molecular, atomic, ion, and chemical beam epitaxy
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
68.35.B- Structure of clean surfaces (and surface reconstruction)

Quantum wires prepared by liquid‐phase‐epitaxial overgrowth of dry‐etched AlGaAs‐GaAs heterostructures

W. Hornischer, P. Grambow, T. Demel, E. Bauser, D. Heitmann, K. von Klitzing, and K. Ploog

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 2998 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106788 (3 pages) | Cited 6 times

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We have developed a technique to overgrow deep‐mesa‐etched AlGaAs‐GaAs quantum wires with AlGaAs by liquid‐phase epitaxy and achieve improved interfacial properties. In particular, we find a significant reduction of the surface‐state density and related lateral edge depletion in modulation‐doped quantum wires. We demonstrate the formation of a quasi‐one‐dimensional electron system by far infrared spectroscopy.
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81.15.Lm Liquid phase epitaxy; deposition from liquid phases (melts, solutions, and surface layers on liquids)
68.65.-k Low-dimensional, mesoscopic, nanoscale and other related systems: structure and nonelectronic properties

Passivation of ion‐beam damage in metal‐oxide‐silicon structures by room‐temperature hydrogenation

S. Kar, K. Srikanth, and S. Ashok

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 3001 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106789 (3 pages) | Cited 4 times

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The efficacy of room‐temperature hydrogenation, by a 400‐eV hydrogen beam from a Kaufman source, in the removal of ion‐beam‐induced defects in metal‐oxide‐silicon (MOS) structures was investigated. The defects were generated by exposure of thermally oxidized silicon samples to a 16‐kV Si ion beam in an ion implanter. The oxide thickness was 115 or 350 Å. Experimental results obtained from admittance‐voltage‐frequency measurements of the MOS structures indicated significant reductions in trap density and other defects.
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85.30.Tv Field effect devices
61.80.Jh Ion radiation effects
71.55.-i Impurity and defect levels

Effect of hydrogen treatment on electrically active centers in AlGaAsSb

A. Y. Polyakov, M. Stam, A. G. Milnes, A. E. Bochkarev, S. J. Pearton, R. G. Wilson, P. Rai‐Choudhury, and R. J. Hillard

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 3004 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106790 (3 pages) | Cited 2 times

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The effects of hydrogen treatment on the concentration of donors and acceptors in Al0.5Ga0.5As0.05Sb0.95 are studied by capacitance‐voltage measurements, two probe spreading resistance profiling, and secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS). Strong passivation of both donors and acceptors was observed. SIMS measurements of deuterium profiles in both and that of the donors or acceptors. This behavior is closer to that of the AlxGa1−xAs system than to that of GaSb.
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71.55.Eq III-V semiconductors
72.80.Ey III-V and II-VI semiconductors

Optical emission properties of semi‐insulating GaAs grown at low temperatures by molecular beam epitaxy

R. Enrique Viturro, Michael R. Melloch, and Jerry M. Woodall

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 3007 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106791 (3 pages) | Cited 18 times

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We have used cathodoluminescence (CL) and photoluminescence spectroscopy to observe deep‐level states in GaAs grown at low‐substrate temperatures by molecular beam epitaxy (LT GaAs) and the evolution of these states upon annealing. The as‐grown material shows intense deep‐level emissions which can be associated with an excess concentration of arsenic, mostly present as As‐antisite and As‐interstitial defects. These emissions subside with annealing for a few minutes at temperatures above 450 °C. CL measurements clearly show a dramatically reduced concentration of traps in the post‐growth 600 °C annealed material. Additional measurements carried out on As/GaAs systems indicate a high surface‐recombination velocity for these interfaces. These results account for a diminished role of electronic point defects in controlling the insulative behavior of LT GaAs and strongly supports a ‘‘buried’’ Schottky barrier model, which involves ultrafast recombination of carriers at surfaces of embedded arsenic clusters formed during the annealing processing of LT GaAs.
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71.55.Eq III-V semiconductors
81.15.Hi Molecular, atomic, ion, and chemical beam epitaxy
68.55.Ln Defects and impurities: doping, implantation, distribution, concentration, etc.
78.60.Hk Cathodoluminescence, ionoluminescence

Single‐step implant isolation of p+‐InP with 5‐MeV O ions

M. C. Ridgway, C. Jagadish, R. G. Elliman, and N. Hauser

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 3010 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106792 (3 pages) | Cited 5 times

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The applicability of a single, 5‐MeV O implant for electrical isolation of epitaxial p+‐InP layers on semi‐insulating InP substrates has been investigated. For such an implant, the ion range is several times that of the epitaxial layer and, consequently, end‐of‐range disorder is buried deep within the substrate. Though sheet resistances of ∼5×106 Ω/sq were achieved, irradiation‐induced conduction in the substrate limits the maximum sheet resistance attainable. The single, high‐energy implant scheme has been compared with a multiple, low‐energy implant sequence. For a given level of disorder in the epitaxial layer, the latter yields higher sheet‐resistance values though the former offers significant process simplification.
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85.40.Hp Lithography, masks and pattern transfer
61.72.U- Doping and impurity implantation
73.61.Ey III-V semiconductors

Evidence for quantum confinement in porous silicon from soft x‐ray absorption

T. van Buuren, Y. Gao, T. Tiedje, J. R. Dahn, and B. M. Way

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 3013 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106793 (3 pages) | Cited 47 times

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Measurements of x‐ray absorption in the vicinity of the silicon L edge in porous silicon show a blueshift and a broadening of the conduction band edge, consistent with a distribution of quantum confinement energies. The absorption spectrum for porous silicon can be fit by a broadened and energy‐shifted version of the crystalline silicon absorption spectrum. The average quantum shift and broadening used in the fit to the absorption spectrum are in reasonable agreement with the corresponding parameters derived from the photoluminescence spectrum.
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78.70.Dm X-ray absorption spectra
78.55.Hx Other solid inorganic materials
73.21.-b Electron states and collective excitations in multilayers, quantum wells, mesoscopic, and nanoscale systems

The Si/Pd(Si,Ge) ohmic contact on n‐GaAs

L. C. Wang, Y. Z. Li, M. Kappes, S. S. Lau, D. M. Hwang, S. A. Schwarz, and T. Sands

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 3016 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106794 (3 pages) | Cited 12 times

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A modified Si/Pd ohmic contact to n‐GaAs has been developed based on the solid‐phase regrowth mechanism. The Si/Pd contact usually yields a contact resistivity of 2×10−6 Ω cm2. A thin (∼15 Å) layer of additional Ge or Si embedded in the Pd layer of the Si/Pd contact structure is used to reduce the contact resistivity from ∼2×10−6 to 2–4×10−7 Ω cm 2 without suffering from a loss of thermal stability. The reduction in the contact resistivity is explained in terms of the formation of an n+ GaAs surface layer via solid‐phase regrowth. The modified contacts show uniform surface and interface morphologies. The contact resistivity of the modified contacts remains in the mid‐10−6 Ω cm2 range after annealing at 400 °C for 50 h.
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73.40.Ns Metal-nonmetal contacts
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology

Picosecond duration, large amplitude impulse generation using electrical soliton effects

Michael Case, Eric Carman, Ruai Yu, M. J. W. Rodwell, and Masayuki Kamegawa

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 3019 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106795 (3 pages) | Cited 9 times

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We report two devices which generate picosecond duration electrical impulses using soliton propagation effects. A high repetition‐rate device has generated an 8.1 Vp‐p (87 mAp‐p), 4.5 ps full width at half‐maximum (FWHM) impulse train at a 31.5 GHz rate. A high compression ratio device has generated an 11.4 Vp‐p (122 mAp‐p), 5.1 ps FWHM impulse train at a 9 GHz rate (sinusoidal input), and a 12.1 Vp‐p (130 mAp‐p), 4.9 ps FWHM impulse train at a 3.22 GHz repetition rate (28 ps FWHM impulse‐train input).
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84.30.Ng Oscillators, pulse generators, and function generators
84.40.-x Radiowave and microwave (including millimeter wave) technology
85.30.Hi Surface barrier, boundary, and point contact devices

GaAs/AlGaAs superlattice miniband detector with 14.5 μm peak response

K. M. S. V. Bandara, J.‐W. Choe, M. H. Francombe, A. G. U. Perera, and Y. F. Lin

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 3022 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106796 (3 pages) | Cited 14 times

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Extended long wavelength infrared detection with a miniband‐type AlGaAs/GaAs superlattice structure is reported. The experimental response band of the detector is peaked near 14.5 μm in good agreement with the theoretical response, provided that electron‐electron interactions are taken into account. The detector operates at a low bias voltage, which could lead to important advantages in application to IR focal plane arrays.
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85.60.Gz Photodetectors (including infrared and CCD detectors)
78.66.Fd III-V semiconductors
78.66.Hf II-VI semiconductors
85.30.De Semiconductor-device characterization, design, and modeling
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