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3 Feb 1992

Volume 60, Issue 5, pp. 521-659

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Carrier capture and quantum confinement in GaAs/AlGaAs quantum wire lasers grown on V‐grooved substrates

M. Walther, E. Kapon, J. Christen, D. M. Hwang, and R. Bhat

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 521 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106595 (3 pages) | Cited 61 times

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Carrier capture mechanisms in semiconductor quantum wire (QWR) lasers grown by organometallic chemical vapor deposition on nonplanar substrates were investigated by cathodoluminescence and photoluminescence (PL) spectroscopy. Efficient carrier capture into the QWRs via adjacent quantum wells is manifested by a complete transfer of luminescence intensity from the well‐ to the wire‐spectral lines at temperatures above ∼100 K. In addition, higher QWR subbands separated by 19 meV are observed in the PL spectra, in agreement with the calculated subband spacing. The quantum well assisted carrier capture in these wires is important for the efficient room temperature operation of lasers and other optoelectronic devices based on QWRs.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
78.66.Fd III-V semiconductors
78.66.Hf II-VI semiconductors
73.50.Gr Charge carriers: generation, recombination, lifetime, trapping, mean free paths

Novel and nonintrusive optical thermometer

Daniel Guidotti and John G. Wilman

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 524 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.107440 (3 pages) | Cited 5 times

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We have developed a novel thermometer based on the small temperature‐induced changes in the optical reflectivity of metals and semiconductors. A nulling optical bridge has been constructed which reduces the temperature measurement to the shot noise limit of the detector. Under ideal laboratory conditions, we have demonstrated a temperature resolution of 0.2 °C.
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07.20.Dt Thermometers
42.79.-e Optical elements, devices, and systems
89.20.Bb Industrial and technological research and development
07.07.Df Sensors (chemical, optical, electrical, movement, gas, etc.); remote sensing

Spontaneous emission and optical gain in a Fabry–Perot microcavity

D. G. Deppe and C. Lei

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 527 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106596 (3 pages) | Cited 15 times

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The Fabry–Perot microcavity is analyzed in terms of its modification of the spontaneous emission and stimulated emission from a thin gain medium, which is contained between distributed Bragg reflectors. The structures correspond to the vertical‐cavity surface‐emitting semiconductor laser. Gain enhancement due to the cavity is calculated and compared to the case of a large Fabry–Perot cavity. The critical parameters in determining the degree of gain enhancement are the (large cavity) coherence length of the spontaneously emitted wave packet, and reflector design.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.60.Da Resonators, cavities, amplifiers, arrays, and rings

Phase‐locked CO2 laser array using diagonal coupling of waveguide channels

K. M. Abramski, A. D. Colley, H. J. Baker, and D. R. Hall

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 530 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106597 (3 pages) | Cited 10 times

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Continuous coupling of square‐bore CO2 waveguide lasers by geometrical overlap in the diagonal direction has been used for phase locking of a five‐channel array. A radio‐frequency discharge excited device has produced 125 W in phase‐locked operation, with power per channel equal to independent single channels. The dependence of phase‐locking range on the coupling geometry, and dimensional tolerances has been demonstrated. The array radiates approximately 65% of its power in the axial lobe.
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42.55.Lt Gas lasers including excimer and metal-vapor lasers
42.60.Da Resonators, cavities, amplifiers, arrays, and rings
42.60.Fc Modulation, tuning, and mode locking

Femtosecond time division interferometry technique for measuring the tensor components of χ(3)

C. de C. Chamon, C. K. Sun, H. A. Haus, and J. G. Fujimoto

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 533 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106598 (3 pages) | Cited 3 times

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We describe a new femtosecond time division interferometry technique for characterizing nonlinear index changes from different components of the χ(3) tensor. Pump probe interferometric measurements of nonlinear phase are performed using a time division multiplexed reference pulse. The n2∥ and n2⊥ components of the nonlinear index are measured by permuting the polarizations of the pulses and using a novel differential detection and modulation scheme. Measurements are demonstrated in an optical fiber.
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42.65.An Optical susceptibility, hyperpolarizability
42.62.Fi Laser spectroscopy
42.79.-e Optical elements, devices, and systems
42.81.-i Fiber optics

60 GHz board‐to‐board optical interconnection using polymer optical buses in conjunction with microprism couplers

R. T. Chen, H. Lu, D. Robinson, Z. Sun, T. Jannson, D. V. Plant, and H. R. Fetterman

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 536 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106599 (3 pages) | Cited 11 times

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See Also: Erratum

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We have demonstrated for the first time 60 GHz wide‐band board‐to‐board optical interconnection with a signal‐to‐noise ratio of 22 dB. The total interconnection distance is 55 cm from the input coupling prism to the detector. Board‐to‐board optical interconnection was realized using microprisms which had a measured coupling bandwidth of more than 250 nm. The graded index of the polymer waveguide allows us to implement such an interconnection scheme on an array of substrates. The elimination of backplane interconnection greatly enhances the interconnection speed. The implementation of a high‐speed on‐board transceiver in connection with a polymer waveguide lens will generate a fully on‐board optical interconnect involving modulation/demodulation.  
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42.79.Gn Optical waveguides and couplers
42.79.Ry Gradient-index (GRIN) devices
42.79.Ta Optical computers, logic elements, interconnects, switches; neural networks

Bloch‐function analysis of resonant arrays of antiguided diode lasers

D. Botez and T. Holcomb

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 539 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106600 (3 pages) | Cited 7 times

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Bloch‐function analysis of antiguided laser arrays provides closed‐form expressions for key parameters in array design, and allows new insights in device behavior. For resonant and near‐resonant devices it is found that as the gain is preferentially placed in the low‐index regions (i.e., antiguide cores) the array mode favored to lase is the resonant leaky mode: in‐phase or out‐of‐phase type. The intermodal discrimination is found to be strongly asymmetrical with respect to resonance: the resonant mode is preferred to lase over a much wider range in index step, Δn, variation on the high‐Δn side of resonance than on the low‐Δn side of resonance. Devices with Talbot‐type spatial filters invariably operate in‐phase except for Δn values well below resonance, when out‐of‐phase‐like modes take over.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.60.Da Resonators, cavities, amplifiers, arrays, and rings

Externally pumped high repetition rate femtosecond infrared optical parametric oscillator

Gary Mak, Qiang Fu, and Henry M. van Driel

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 542 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106601 (3 pages) | Cited 21 times

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The first externally pumped high repetition rate optical parametric oscillator (OPO) which produces tunable femtosecond pulses in the near‐infrared is demonstrated. The singly resonant oscillator with a KTiOPO4 (KTP) nonlinear crystal is synchronously pumped by 150‐fs pulses at 645 nm from a mode‐locked dye laser. With a pump power of 280 mW, stable 220‐fs pulses at a 76‐MHz repetition rate, tunable from 1.20 to 1.34 μm with a single set of mirrors, are achieved. The internal power conversion efficiency is 13% and the average infrared power is as large as 30 mW, for the signal beam only. Femtosecond pulses tunable over the wavelength range from 0.9–4.5 μm (with KTP) using multiple mirror sets should be possible. This range includes the technologically important regime from 1.0–1.6 μm. 
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42.60.Fc Modulation, tuning, and mode locking
42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.55.Rz Doped-insulator lasers and other solid state lasers
42.65.Ky Frequency conversion; harmonic generation, including higher-order harmonic generation

New cermet film structures with much improved selectivity for solar thermal applications

Qi‐Chu Zhang and David R. Mills

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 545 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106602 (3 pages) | Cited 31 times

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A new cermet film structure of solar thermal absorber is presented. The typical film is similar to that of the single cermet layer case, except the single cermet layer is replaced by two isotropic cermet sublayers. The calculated results have been shown that low‐ and high‐temperature performances using this new selective surface structure are excellent. The value of the ratio of absorptance to normal emittance α/ϵ, 46, for deposited film has been achieved.
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78.66.Sq Composite materials
78.20.Ci Optical constants (including refractive index, complex dielectric constant, absorption, reflection and transmission coefficients, emissivity)
81.15.-z Methods of deposition of films and coatings; film growth and epitaxy
81.65.-b Surface treatments

Theoretical analysis of strained‐layer InGaAs/GaAs quantum‐well lasers with gain suppression and valence‐band mixing

D. Ahn and T.‐K. Yoo

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 548 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106603 (3 pages) | Cited 2 times

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Linear gain, gain suppression, and L‐I characteristics of strained‐layer InGaAs/GaAs quantum‐well laser are studied theoretically, taking into account valence‐band mixing effects with biaxial compressive strain. It is found that the biaxial compressive strain substantially alters subband structure by pushing the light‐hold subband bands into higher‐energy states. It also alters the optical gain of a quantum‐well laser. In particular, the biaxially compressed strained‐layer InGaAs/GaAs quantum well shows a pronounced preference for TE polarization over TM polarization and the higher optical gain than does a typical GaAs/AlGaAs quantum well. The L‐I characteristics are obtained self‐consistently from the rate equations for the carrier and the photon densities and the calculated L‐I curve shows reasonable agreement with the experimental data.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
78.45.+h Stimulated emission
78.66.Fd III-V semiconductors
78.66.Hf II-VI semiconductors

Director‐polarization reorientation via solitary waves in ferroelectric liquid crystals

I. Abdulhalim, G. Moddel, and N. A. Clark

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 551 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106604 (3 pages) | Cited 9 times

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The spatial nonuniformity of the director field in ferroelectric liquid crystals during switching is demonstrated using the electro‐optic response to a bipolar field and explained by director solitary wave motion.
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61.30.Gd Orientational order of liquid crystals; electric and magnetic field effects on order
77.80.Dj Domain structure; hysteresis
78.20.Jq Electro-optical effects
42.65.Pc Optical bistability, multistability, and switching, including local field effects

Direct measurement of the transparency current and valence band effective masses in tensile and compressively strained InGaAs/InP multiple quantum‐well laser amplifiers

L. F. Tiemeijer, P. J. A. Thijs, J. J. M. Binsma, and T. V. Dongen

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 554 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106605 (3 pages) | Cited 6 times

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Transparency current densities of 250 and 160 A/cm2 per well at the bandgap wavelength are reported for compressively and tensile strained multi quantum‐well laser amplifiers. A strong wavelength dependence of the transparency current is found, due to level broadening, which shows that the threshold current of a quantum‐well laser is inherently loss limited, rather than transparency limited. The spectral and polarizational dependence of the gain is measured and analyzed. From this it is concluded that the compressively (1.8%) and tensile (1.6%) strained quantum‐well laser amplifiers exhibit valence band effective masses of 0.07 m0 and 0.1 m0, respectively, which shows that they both have a nearly symmetric band structure.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
73.61.Ey III-V semiconductors
78.66.Fd III-V semiconductors
78.66.Hf II-VI semiconductors

Concentration profiles of CF in a CF4 radio frequency discharge via laser induced fluorescence and actinometry

W. T. Conner and H. H. Sawin

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 557 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106606 (3 pages) | Cited 14 times

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We have measured the steady state, axial concentration profiles of the CF radical in a symmetric, parallel plate, 13.56 MHz discharge in CF4 (with 5% Ar) using both laser induced fluorescence (LIF) and actinometry. The two lowest vibrational levels of the ground electronic state (X) of CF were probed with LIF and the two lowest vibrational levels of the B electronic state were observed in emission for actinometry. The LIF profiles, and thus, the X state concentration profiles, were both nearly flat in the bulk of the discharge. The B, v′=0 actinometric profile was sharply peaked, while the v′=1 was nearly flat. Therefore, spatially resolved actinometry works for the B,v′=1 level of CF but not for v′=0, under the discharge conditions studied.  
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52.80.Hc Glow; corona
52.80.Pi High-frequency and RF discharges

Center electrode effects in a long‐conduction‐time plasma‐opening switch

L. Véron, B. Etlicher, and C. Rouillé

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 560 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106607 (2 pages) | Cited 2 times

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We present the results of an experimental study of a coaxial, long‐conduction‐time plasma‐opening switch. Our experiments show that the use of an 80% transparent inner electrode can significantly increase the opening speed. From measurements of the current into a load, the use of the grid improves the value of dI/dt by more than 60%, compared to results obtained with a solid center electrode.  
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52.75.Kq Plasma switches (e.g., spark gaps)
52.80.-s Electric discharges
84.32.-y Passive circuit components

Raman scattering and the π‐orbitals in amorphous carbon films

K. Sinha, J. Menéndez, O. F. Sankey, D. A. Johnson, W. J. Varhue, J. N. Kidder, P. W. Pastel, and W. Lanford

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 562 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106608 (3 pages) | Cited 12 times

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We report a Raman study of amorphous carbon films grown by different techniques. We compare Raman line shapes, depolarization ratios, and excitation profiles obtained from samples grown by rf‐plasma deposition or sputtering as opposed to arc‐evaporated carbon films. We find that all features of the Raman spectra are closer to results from crystalline graphite for samples deposited with an electron cyclotron resonance plasma using either a hydrocarbon gas source or a graphite sputtering target. This is surprising in view of the much larger optical band gap of these samples and also in view of recent e‐2e scattering results which suggest that the π orbitals are more graphitelike in arc‐evaporated carbon films. We offer a possible explanation of this paradox based on a reinterpretation of the optical properties of amorphous carbon which takes into account the special characteristics of the electronic states derived from π orbitals.
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78.35.+c Brillouin and Rayleigh scattering; other light scattering
71.23.-k Electronic structure of disordered solids
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology

Synthesis of diamond filaments in an oxyacetylene torch

Philip W. Morrison, Joseph E. Cosgrove, and Peter R. Solomon

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 565 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106609 (3 pages) | Cited 1 time

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This research reports the growth of diamond filaments using chemical vapor deposition (CVD). The growth reactor consists of an oxyacetylene torch that impinges on a cooled Mo wire tip. By controlling the tip temperature with a flow of Ar and carefully positioning the tip in the flame, one successfully nucleates a diamond seed. Slowly retracting the wire tip from the flame produces a filament of diameter 200–250 μm and length of 1 mm in 6–8 h. We have demonstrated that, in principle, there is no limit to the length of the filament. X‐ray diffraction shows that the filament is cubic diamond and that it is not randomly oriented polycrystalline diamond but does have some features of orientational texture. Throughout the deposition, a video camera focused through a microscope records the nucleation and growth of the diamond.  
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81.10.Bk Growth from vapor
68.70.+w Whiskers and dendrites (growth, structure, and nonelectronic properties)

Submicron Si1−xGex/Si epitaxial structure formation by wet oxidation of amorphous Si‐Ge layers

S. M. Prokes and A. K. Rai

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 568 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106610 (3 pages) | Cited 6 times

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Submicron buried epitaxial SixGe1−x structures have been formed by a wet oxidation process from amorphous SixGe1−x layers. Epitaxial features in the shape of buried ‘‘donut’’ regions as well as buried Ge‐rich lines have been obtained by this method using initial particulate contaminants or patterned amorphous SiGe structures as the starting features. Oxide formation above the epitaxial structures has been examined, showing that the oxides formed in this process consisted of several layers, some containing both SiO2 and GeO2. The mechanism of formation is interpreted in terms of motion of both Si and Ge during the oxidation process.
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81.15.Np Solid phase epitaxy; growth from solid phases
68.35.Fx Diffusion; interface formation
81.15.-z Methods of deposition of films and coatings; film growth and epitaxy

Evidence for an As4 sticking coefficient ≳0.5 in the molecular beam epitaxy of GaAs

C. Webb, D. Liu, and J. N. Eckstein

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 571 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106611 (3 pages)

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Since the early work of Foxon and Joyce [Surf. Sci. 50, 434 (1975)] it has been accepted that the maximum sticking coefficient for As4 on GaAs in MBE growth is 0.5. Our results, based upon dc photoemission behavior and oscillations both in RHEED and photoemission, call into question this assumption and suggest that it is possible to observe near unity sticking coefficients provided the nucleation of Ga droplets has not occurred.
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81.15.Hi Molecular, atomic, ion, and chemical beam epitaxy
81.65.-b Surface treatments
68.03.Fg Evaporation and condensation of liquids
68.43.Mn Adsorption kinetics

Surface structures of high‐quality diamond crystals synthesized by the oxy‐acetylene flame method

Keiji Hirabayashi, Shuji Amanuma, and Yoichi Hirose

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 574 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106614 (3 pages) | Cited 6 times

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The microstructures of the {111} surfaces of high‐quality diamond crystals deposited by the oxy‐acetylene flame method have been studied using a high‐resolution scanning electron microscope to clear the mechanism of the crystal growth. On the {111} surfaces of the high‐quality diamond crystals, the two‐dimensional nucleation rate is suppressed and the two‐dimensional crystal growth rate is promoted. The suppression of the two‐dimensional nucleation rate and the promotion of the two‐dimensional crystal growth rate reduce the number of faults, dislocations, and defects and result in the formation of high‐quality diamond crystals.
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68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
68.35.-p Solid surfaces and solid-solid interfaces: structure and energetics
81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)

Interfacial reactions and Schottky barriers of Pt and Pd on epitaxial Si1−xGex alloys

H. K. Liou, X. Wu, U. Gennser, V. P. Kesan, S. S. Iyer, K. N. Tu, and E. S. Yang

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 577 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106615 (3 pages) | Cited 54 times

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The evolution of interfacial reactions during the deposition of Pt and Pd on epitaxial Si1−xGex alloys was studied using x‐ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) for metal coverage up to 10 Å. Auger electron depth profiling was performed on a thicker metal overlayer before and after in vacuo annealing to study the redistribution of composition in the reactions. We have found that Pt and Pd react mainly with Si to form silicides at 350 °C, leaving some Ge to segregate at the surface. These results were correlated with Schottky barrier height measurements. We found that the Schottky barrier heights of Pt/n‐Si0.8Ge0.2 and Pd/n‐Si0.8Ge0.2 are about the same, pinned at 0.68 eV, which is much smaller than those of n‐Si. These barrier heights are quite stable up to 550 °C.
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73.30.+y Surface double layers, Schottky barriers, and work functions
73.20.At Surface states, band structure, electron density of states
73.40.Ns Metal-nonmetal contacts

Nuclear magnetic resonance and infrared absorption studies of hydrogen incorporation in polycrystalline diamond

K. M. McNamara, D. H. Levy, K. K. Gleason, and C. J. Robinson

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 580 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106616 (3 pages) | Cited 41 times

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Hydrogen incorporated into polycrystalline diamond was found to correlate with the optical absorption in the 8 to 10 μm wavelength IR region, where transparency is desired. In this first detailed study of diamond films by 1H NMR, average concentrations were found to be <0.25 at. % H. However, segregation produces regions of extremely high local hydrogen density as evidenced by a broad (50–70 kHz) Gaussian NMR component. The majority of this clustered hydrogen is rigidly held, while a fraction undergoes motional narrowing at room temperature, most likely due to methyl group rotation. Sites at grain boundaries are capable of accounting for a significant fraction of this hydrogen, as are defects and voids within the crystal or a heavily hydrogenated phase stable at the deposition temperature.
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78.30.-j Infrared and Raman spectra
78.40.Fy Semiconductors
76.60.-k Nuclear magnetic resonance and relaxation
78.30.Hv Other nonmetallic inorganics

Faraday rotation from Zn1−xFexSe epilayers

L. P. Fu, T. Schmiedel, A. Petrou, J. Warnock, and B. T. Jonker

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 583 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106617 (3 pages) | Cited 7 times

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We present Faraday rotation measurements on Zn1−xFexSe films grown by molecular beam epitaxy. The samples exhibit giant Faraday rotation characteristic of diluted magnetic semiconductors. Measurements were carried out at T=4.2 K and in magnetic fields up to 8 T. The Faraday rotation angle shows a strong resonance for photon energies close to the band gap. The resonance curves were fitted by a simple dielectric model using the exciton oscillator strength as a fitting parameter.
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78.20.Ls Magneto-optical effects
78.66.-w Optical properties of specific thin films
75.50.Pp Magnetic semiconductors
78.66.Fd III-V semiconductors
78.66.Hf II-VI semiconductors

Lateral band gap modulation by buried stressor structures in III–V compounds semiconductor quantum‐well structures

Z. Xu, M. Wassermeier, Y. J. Li, and P. M. Petroff

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 586 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106589 (3 pages) | Cited 4 times

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A buried stressor structure was fabricated using in situ focused ion beam sputter etching and molecular beam epitaxy to produce a lateral band gap modulation in GaAs/AlGaAs quantum‐well structures. Strain induced band gap modulation and the consequent carrier confinement were demonstrated by low temperature cathodoluminescence. A 12 meV deep potential well was demonstrated. The observed band gap shrinkage as a function of distance from the stressor was obtained and is found in good agreement with the theory.
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68.55.Ln Defects and impurities: doping, implantation, distribution, concentration, etc.
81.15.Hi Molecular, atomic, ion, and chemical beam epitaxy
78.60.Hk Cathodoluminescence, ionoluminescence
78.66.Fd III-V semiconductors
78.66.Hf II-VI semiconductors

Growth of highly strained InAs/InP heterostructures by metalorganic chemical vapor deposition using tertiarybutylarsine

C. A. Tran, R. A. Masut, P. Cova, and J. L. Brebner

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 589 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106590 (3 pages) | Cited 13 times

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InAs/InP highly strained quantum well, multiquantum well, and superlattice structures with abrupt interfaces have been grown using tertiarybutylarsine. The diffraction of x‐ray wave fields in these heterostructures has been used to examine the structural properties of quantum wells with a thickness of a few monolayers. The high resolution five‐crystal x‐ray diffraction patterns of single and multiple quantum wells exhibit a modulation of the interferences fringes which strongly depends on the structural parameters of these layers. A computer simulation of the x‐ray experimental Bragg diffraction pattern using dynamical theory shows good agreement between the measured and simulated spectra.
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68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)

Infrared absorption and photoconductive gain of quantum well infrared photodetectors

K. K. Choi, L. Fotiadis, M. Taysing‐Lara, W. Chang, and G. J. Iafrate

Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 592 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.106591 (3 pages) | Cited 16 times

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We have conducted a detailed study on the properties of a multiple quantum well infrared photodetector (QWIP) with a single bound state. From the optical absorption experiment, we found that the peak absorption energy is determined by the resonant states associated with each individual well and not by the global miniband structure. From the transport experiment, we observed that the photoelectron distribution over the QWIP is extremely narrow and close to the top of the quantum well barriers, indicative of the diffusive nature of the hot‐electron transport in this structure. At large bias, the photoelectron distribution begins to shift up in energy, and is found strongly correlated to the observed photoconductive gain of the detector.  
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85.60.Dw Photodiodes; phototransistors; photoresistors
85.60.Gz Photodetectors (including infrared and CCD detectors)
72.40.+w Photoconduction and photovoltaic effects
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