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12 Oct 1992

Volume 61, Issue 15, pp. 1745-1866

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Optical nonlinearities in strained‐layer InGaAs/GaAs multiple quantum wells

R. Jin, K. Okada, G. Khitrova, H. M. Gibbs, M. Pereira, S. W. Koch, and N. Peyghambarian

Appl. Phys. Lett. 61, 1745 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108414 (3 pages) | Cited 22 times

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Optical nonlinearities in strained‐layer InGaAs/GaAs multiple quantum wells (MQWs) are studied using pump‐probe spectroscopy. It is found that the carrier density required for absorption saturation in a strained InGaAs/GaAs MQW is about a factor of two lower than that in an unstrained GaAs/AlGaAs MQW with similar structures, while the nonlinear index change per carrier is about the same for both samples. The decrease in the saturation density in the strained MQW is explained by the increase of the top valence‐band curvature caused by the compressive strain in the quantum well.
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78.66.Fd III-V semiconductors
78.66.Hf II-VI semiconductors
42.70.Nq Other nonlinear optical materials; photorefractive and semiconductor materials

Pattern effects in time jitter of semiconductor lasers

Adalberto Sapia, Paolo Spano, Claudio R. Mirasso, Pere Colet, and Maxi San Miguel

Appl. Phys. Lett. 61, 1748 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108415 (3 pages) | Cited 4 times

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The effect of fast repetitive pulse modulation on the value of time jitter affecting the optical pulses emitted by semiconductor lasers is studied both experimentally and by numerical simulations. The results show that the modulation also induces pattern effects that increase the value of time jitter to non‐negligible values for bias above threshold.  
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.60.Mi Dynamical laser instabilities; noisy laser behavior
42.55.Rz Doped-insulator lasers and other solid state lasers

Phase controlled all‐optical switching in rocking filter fibers

C. G. Krautschik, G. I. Stegeman, and R. H. Stolen

Appl. Phys. Lett. 61, 1751 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108416 (3 pages) | Cited 8 times

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We demonstrate experimentally that all‐optical switching of a strong beam can be controlled by the phase of a weak beam in a rocking rotator fiber.
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42.65.Pc Optical bistability, multistability, and switching, including local field effects
42.81.Wg Other fiber-optical devices

Novel 1‐to‐N way integrated optical beam splitters using symmetric mode mixing in GaAs/AlGaAs multimode waveguides

J. M. Heaton, R. M. Jenkins, D. R. Wight, J. T. Parker, J. C. H. Birbeck, and K. P. Hilton

Appl. Phys. Lett. 61, 1754 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108495 (3 pages) | Cited 52 times

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We report the demonstration of novel GaAs/AlGaAs integrated optical 1‐to‐N way beam splitters which use symmetric mode mixing in center‐fed multimode planar waveguides. Each device has one single‐mode input guide, a carefully chosen length of parallel sided multimode guide, and N equally spaced single‐mode output guides. The mixing of symmetric modes shares the input light equally between the output guides by a symmetric form of the self‐imaging process. We demonstrate experimentally that this type of beam splitter can be used to divide power equally, with high accuracy and low loss, between the N output guides, for values of N between 2 and 20.
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42.79.Fm Reflectors, beam splitters, and deflectors
42.82.Bq Design and performance testing of integrated-optical systems

Photoluminescence from submicron CaF2:Nd films grown epitaxially on Si(111) and Al(111)/Si(111)

C. C. Cho, W. M. Duncan, T. H. Lin, and S. K. Fan

Appl. Phys. Lett. 61, 1757 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108417 (3 pages) | Cited 10 times

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Nd3+ doped CaF2 films have been grown epitaxially on Si(111) and Al(111)/Si(111) using CaF2 and NdF3 evaporation. Photoluminescence spectra from these samples show high intensity and narrow emission linewidth even when the thickness of the CaF2:Nd films is reduced to 0.2 μm. The 10 457 Å emission line is not quenched until the Nd concentration exceeds 3.8 wt.%. Moreover, while similar spectra are observed, the photoluminescence intensity from the CaF2:Nd films grown on Al/Si(111) is significantly higher than from the CaF2:Nd on Si(111).
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42.70.Hj Laser materials
78.55.Fv Solid alkali halides
81.15.Hi Molecular, atomic, ion, and chemical beam epitaxy
78.66.-w Optical properties of specific thin films

32 GHz metal‐semiconductor‐metal photodetectors on crystalline silicon

Stephen Y. Chou, Yue Liu, and T. F. Carruthers

Appl. Phys. Lett. 61, 1760 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108418 (3 pages) | Cited 5 times

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Interdigitated metal‐semiconductor‐metal (MSM) photodetectors with 1.2 μm finger spacing and 0.8 μm finger width were fabricated on crystalline Si substrate. The devices are transit time limited, exhibiting a measured full width at half maximum response time of 14 ps and a 3‐dB bandwidth of 32 GHz. Monte Carlo simulations of Si MSM photodetector response time and bandwidth agree with experiments and predict that if the finger spacing of the Si MSM photodetectors is reduced to 25 nm, the response time can decrease to ∼1 ps and the bandwidth can increase to 440 GHz.
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85.60.Gz Photodetectors (including infrared and CCD detectors)
73.40.Sx Metal-semiconductor-metal structures
42.82.Cr Fabrication techniques; lithography, pattern transfer
42.82.Gw Other integrated-optical elements and systems

New coherent detector for terahertz radiation based on excitonic electroabsorption

W. Sha, T. B. Norris, J. W. Burm, D. Woodard, and W. J. Schaff

Appl. Phys. Lett. 61, 1763 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108419 (3 pages) | Cited 6 times

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We demonstrate a new technique for the coherent measurement of free‐space THz electrical transients, based on the parallel‐field excitonic electroabsorption effect in GaAs quantum wells. A THz transient generated from a photoconductive dipole antenna is measured with a rise time of 290 fs and a full width at half maximum of 360 fs. The initial rise of the THz wave form is abrupt, and does not display the exponential leading edge apparent in waveforms measured with photoconductive techniques. The detector sensitivity is sub‐100 mV/cm.
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78.47.-p Spectroscopy of solid state dynamics
78.66.Fd III-V semiconductors
78.66.Hf II-VI semiconductors
85.60.-q Optoelectronic devices

Ferroelectric phase transition in KTiOPO4: An optical second‐harmonic generation study

David K. T. Chu and Hui Hsiung

Appl. Phys. Lett. 61, 1766 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108420 (3 pages) | Cited 5 times

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The ferroelectric phase transition in a single‐domain KTiOPO4 (KTP) crystal is studied with optical second‐harmonic generation. The optical nonlinearity decreases continuously with increasing temperature and vanishes at the Curie point (TC=952 °C) and above. Over a broad temperature range in the ferroelectric phase, the nonlinear optical coefficient d33∝(TC−T)0.5. This behavior is in good agreement with the Landau theory for second‐order ferroelectric phase transitions.
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42.70.Nq Other nonlinear optical materials; photorefractive and semiconductor materials
77.80.B- Phase transitions and Curie point
42.65.Ky Frequency conversion; harmonic generation, including higher-order harmonic generation

Picosecond optical parametric generation and amplification in LiB3O5 and β‐BaB2O4

Fang Huang and Liu Huang

Appl. Phys. Lett. 61, 1769 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108421 (3 pages) | Cited 8 times

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In this letter, an optical parametric generation and amplification system including a type II noncritically phase‐matched LiB3O5 and a type I critically phase‐matched β‐BaB2O4 is reported. Pumped by 4.8 mJ 30 ps 355 nm laser pulse, 415.9–482.6 nm tunable wavelengths with linewidths as low as 0.15 nm have been obtained. System pump‐to‐signal energy conversion efficiency up to 32.7% with 1.57 mJ energy and 52 MW peak‐power single pulse have been achieved.
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42.65.Ky Frequency conversion; harmonic generation, including higher-order harmonic generation

Improved performance of compressively as well as tensile strained quantum‐well lasers

M. P. C. M. Krijn, G. W. ’t Hooft, M. J. B. Boermans, P. J. A. Thijs, T. van Dongen, J. J. M. Binsma, L. F. Tiemeijer, and C. J. van der Poel

Appl. Phys. Lett. 61, 1772 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108422 (3 pages) | Cited 23 times

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The results of a theoretical study together with an experimental verification of the effects of strain on the laser characteristics of InxGa1−xAs/InGaAsP quantum‐well lasers are reported. It is shown that tensile strained quantum‐well lasers can perform as well as compressively strained lasers with respect to the threshold current density. Both show an improved performance when compared to the unstrained case. The origin of this improved performance is discussed.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
73.21.-b Electron states and collective excitations in multilayers, quantum wells, mesoscopic, and nanoscale systems
78.66.Fd III-V semiconductors
78.66.Hf II-VI semiconductors

High‐brightness InGaAlP green light‐emitting diodes

H. Sugawara, K. Itaya, H. Nozaki, and G. Hatakoshi

Appl. Phys. Lett. 61, 1775 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108423 (3 pages) | Cited 44 times

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Candela class InGaAlP surface‐emission green light‐emitting diodes (LEDs) have been successfully fabricated. The growth of InGaAlP on an intentionally misoriented substrate improved emission properties, as confirmed by a quantitative estimation of the diffusion length in the active material. A Bragg reflector using InGaAlP was realized for the first time. A new device structure, including this Bragg reflector, drastically improved the light extraction efficiency. An external quantum efficiency of 0.7% at 573 nm green light was obtained, corresponding to a luminous intensity of 2 cd.
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85.60.Jb Light-emitting devices
81.15.Kk Vapor phase epitaxy; growth from vapor phase
78.60.Fi Electroluminescence

Polymer coated silver halide infrared fibers as sensing devices for chlorinated hydrocarbons in water

R. Krska, E. Rosenberg, K. Taga, R. Kellner, A. Messica, and A. Katzir

Appl. Phys. Lett. 61, 1778 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108424 (3 pages) | Cited 22 times

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Fiberoptic evanescent wave spectroscopy (FEWS) based on AgClBr fibers and a Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectrometer was used for the first time to measure chlorinated hydrocarbons (CH) in water. A minimum detection limit lower than 10 mg/l was achieved by coating the fiber with low density polyethylene (LDPE), which shows reversible enrichment of CH. The response of the sensor to CH diffusion through the polymer layer was analyzed theoretically and the results were found to be in good agreement with the experiments.
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42.81.Pa Sensors, gyros
42.62.-b Laser applications
82.80.Ms Mass spectrometry (including SIMS, multiphoton ionization and resonance ionization mass spectrometry, MALDI)

Wavelength tuning and absorption line shape of quantum well infrared photodetectors

K. K. Choi, M. Taysing‐Lara, P. G. Newman, W. Chang, and G. J. Iafrate

Appl. Phys. Lett. 61, 1781 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108425 (3 pages) | Cited 7 times

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We have conducted a systematic theoretical and experimental study on wavelength tuning and absorption lineshape of single‐bound‐state quantum well infrared photodetectors. By computing the oscillator strength using the exact quantum well eigen functions, we show that an intersubband transition is from the ground state to the first resonant state in one extreme when the ground state is totally localized in the well, or to the second miniband in another extreme when the ground state wave function is delocalized. In the intermediate cases, the absorption wavelength is determined by the energy of a final state with which the oscillator strength is maximum. We also calculated the absorption lineshape and show that it depends sensitively on the position of the final state relative to the global band structure of the detector.  
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85.60.Dw Photodiodes; phototransistors; photoresistors
85.60.Gz Photodetectors (including infrared and CCD detectors)
85.30.De Semiconductor-device characterization, design, and modeling
78.66.Fd III-V semiconductors
78.66.Hf II-VI semiconductors

Terahertz beam generation by femtosecond optical pulses in electro‐optic materials

L. Xu, X.‐C. Zhang, and D. H. Auston

Appl. Phys. Lett. 61, 1784 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108426 (3 pages) | Cited 76 times

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We have observed subpicosecond pulses having terahertz bandwidths generated from electro‐optic materials by using femtosecond optical pulses. The time‐resolved radiation signal clearly indicates that the terahertz radiation comes from the regions within the coherence length near the surfaces of electro‐optic materials under the phase‐mismatched condition. When the high‐energy femtosecond laser pulses are used, this method provides a new way to generate large amplitude broad bandwidth terahertz radiation efficiently.
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78.20.Jq Electro-optical effects
42.65.Re Ultrafast processes; optical pulse generation and pulse compression

Noninvasive picosecond ultrasonic detection of ultrathin interfacial layers: CFx at the Al/Si interface

G. Tas, R. J. Stoner, H. J. Maris, G. W. Rubloff, G. S. Oehrlein, and J. M. Halbout

Appl. Phys. Lett. 61, 1787 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108427 (3 pages) | Cited 27 times

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A picosecond ultrasonics technique has been used to detect interfacial fluorocarbon (CFx) layers as thin as 0.5 nm between aluminum and silicon. The presence of the CFx material reduces acoustic damping and heat loss from the Al film into the Si substrate. This provides a means for noninvasive identification of organic/polymeric contaminants at the buried interface and potentially for characterizing interfacial mechanical properties.  
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43.35.Yb Ultrasonic instrumentation and measurement techniques
68.60.Bs Mechanical and acoustical properties
68.65.-k Low-dimensional, mesoscopic, nanoscale and other related systems: structure and nonelectronic properties
68.55.Ln Defects and impurities: doping, implantation, distribution, concentration, etc.

Improved ultrathin oxynitride formed by thermal nitridation and low pressure chemical vapor deposition process

Bikas Maiti, Ming Yin Hao, Insup Lee, and Jack C. Lee

Appl. Phys. Lett. 61, 1790 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108428 (3 pages) | Cited 11 times

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In this letter, we will present the electrical and reliability characteristics of ultrathin oxynitrides (65–73 Å) formed by thermal nitridation of silicon substrate followed by deposition of silicon dioxide by low pressure chemical vapor deposition (LPCVD) technique. The dielectric integrity has been compared to those of the conventional thermal oxide and reoxidized nitrided oxides. It has been found that the new oxynitrides have lower electron trapping, higher charge‐to‐breakdown, and lower interface state generation under electrical stress even in comparison to reoxidized nitrided oxides with the same thermal budget. The improved characteristics are believed to be due to the combination of the nitrogen‐rich layer at the Si/SiO2 interface, the higher quality of LPCVD oxides over thermally grown oxides, and the reduced hydrogen concentration in the dielectrics in comparison to conventional nitrided oxides. The results indicate that these new oxynitride films may be promising for ultra large scale integrated metal‐oxide‐semiconductor device applications, especially in cases where low thermal budget processes are desirable.  
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73.40.Qv Metal-insulator-semiconductor structures (including semiconductor-to-insulator)
85.30.Tv Field effect devices
85.40.Hp Lithography, masks and pattern transfer

Organometallic chemical vapor deposition of tungsten metal, and suppression of carbon incorporation by codeposition of platinum

Burkhard Niemer, Alfred A. Zinn, William K. Stovall, Paul E. Gee, Robert F. Hicks, and Herbert D. Kaesz

Appl. Phys. Lett. 61, 1793 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108402 (3 pages) | Cited 5 times

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Highly reflecting, amorphous, thin films of tungsten are obtained by the decomposition of bis‐cyclopentadienyltungstendihydride, (η‐C5H5)2WH2, in 1 atm of hydrogen at 350 °C. Auger depth profiling reveals that the carbon and oxygen content of the films are 25.1 and 3.1 at. %, respectively. Simultaneous chemical vapor deposition of tungsten with a small amount of platinum reduces the carbon and oxygen content of the film to 5.3 and 1.8 at. %. The platinum is deposited from cyclopentadienylplatinumtrimethyl, (η‐C5H5)Pt(CH3)3, and its concen‐ tration in the film is 3.3%. Annealing at 750 °C in hydrogen converts the tungsten into a polycrystalline deposit which exhibits an x‐ray diffraction pattern characteristic of the metal. The sheet resistivities of the amorphous films are 52±4 μΩ cm.
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81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)
73.61.At Metal and metallic alloys

Polarized Raman spectroscopy in ion irradiated graphite

G. Compagnini and G. Baratta

Appl. Phys. Lett. 61, 1796 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108403 (3 pages) | Cited 15 times

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Polarized Raman spectra have been performed in keV ion irradiated highly oriented pyrolytic graphite in order to investigate the disorder induced by energetic ions in the carbon matrix at room temperature. Early stages of ion irradiation (1012–1015 He+/cm2 3 keV) induce a high depolarization ratio of the 1360 cm−1 D line, leaving the 1580 cm−1 line almost unchanged. This was interpreted by an anisotropic damage induced in the highly oriented pyrolytic graphite structure by an ion collision cascade.
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61.80.Jh Ion radiation effects
78.30.Hv Other nonmetallic inorganics

Metal deposition onto oxides: An unusual low initial sticking probability for copper on SiO2

Xueping Xu and D. Wayne Goodman

Appl. Phys. Lett. 61, 1799 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108404 (3 pages) | Cited 22 times

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The initial sticking probability of copper on a thin silica film has been measured in the temperature range 90–700 K using temperature programmed desorption. The copper sticking probability depends markedly on the surface temperature, varying from 0.6±0.1 at 90 K to less than 0.1 above 400 K. Upon covering the silica surface with multilayer water, the sticking probability of copper increases to ∼1.0. These results imply that using a quartz crystal microbalance, even at 90 K, to monitor Cu deposition on silica (and likely other similar oxides) may lead to a significant error in the estimation of metal growth rate.
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81.15.-z Methods of deposition of films and coatings; film growth and epitaxy
82.65.+r Surface and interface chemistry; heterogeneous catalysis at surfaces

Precursors for Si atomic layer epitaxy: Real time adsorption studies on Si(100)

D. D. Koleske, S. M. Gates, and D. B. Beach

Appl. Phys. Lett. 61, 1802 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108405 (3 pages) | Cited 11 times

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Adsorption of SiClH3 and SiCl2H2 on Si(100) is studied as a function of surface temperature, comparing these precursors for Si atomic layer epitaxy (ALE). At 450–550 °C, a substantial surface H coverage (θH) exists during SiClH3 adsorption, and θH exhibits transient behavior. During SiCl2H2 adsorption, θH is much smaller. At 500 °C with SiCl2H2, ≂1 monolayer of Cl is formed after ≂4×1019 cm−2 exposure. Dichlorosilane is a suitable precursor for Si ALE, but desorption of HCl is significant at T≳500 °C so that SiCl2H2 adsorption is not strictly self‐limiting.
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81.15.Kk Vapor phase epitaxy; growth from vapor phase
68.43.-h Chemisorption/physisorption: adsorbates on surfaces

Reflection high‐energy electron diffraction study of the GaAs:Si:GaAs system

M. R. Fahy, M. J. Ashwin, J. J. Harris, R. C. Newman, and B. A. Joyce

Appl. Phys. Lett. 61, 1805 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108406 (3 pages) | Cited 28 times

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Surface structures occurring as a function of coverage during the deposition of Si on GaAs (001) and the further changes brought about by subsequent GaAs overgrowth using molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) have been studied with reflection high‐energy electron diffraction (RHEED). Deposition of Si in the presence of an As4 flux causes the surface reconstruction to change systematically from 2×4 to symmetric 3×1 via an asymmetric 3×1 stage. The process is reversed during the overgrowth of GaAs. The change in surface periodicity in the [110] direction from two‐fold to three‐fold is explained by a superpositioning model. The implications of this for the growth and incorporation mechanisms of Si on GaAs are discussed.  
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68.55.Ln Defects and impurities: doping, implantation, distribution, concentration, etc.
81.15.Hi Molecular, atomic, ion, and chemical beam epitaxy
61.05.jh Low-energy electron diffraction (LEED) and reflection high-energy electron diffraction (RHEED)

Isothermal capacitance transient spectroscopy measurements on polycrystalline diamond/hydrogenated amorphous silicon heterojunctions

Hideo Kiyota, Hideyo Okushi, Ken Okano, Yukio Akiba, Tateki Kurosu, and Masamori Iida

Appl. Phys. Lett. 61, 1808 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108407 (3 pages) | Cited 8 times

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A deep level in boron‐doped polycrystalline diamond films located approximately 0.6 eV above the valence‐band edge has been found using isothermal capacitance transient spectroscopy (ICTS) measurements. p‐n heterojunctions between polycrystalline diamond and hydrogenated amorphous silicon were used in the study. The density and the hole‐capture cross section of the deep level traps were determined from the temperature dependence of ICTS spectra and found to be 2×1016 cm−3 and 1×10−17 cm2, respectively.
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71.55.Ht Other nonmetals
73.50.Gr Charge carriers: generation, recombination, lifetime, trapping, mean free paths
73.61.Cw Elemental semiconductors
73.61.Jc Amorphous semiconductors; glasses
73.61.Le Other inorganic semiconductors

DX center electron occupancy under hydrostatic pressure in Si‐doped Iny(Ga1−xAlx)1−yAs alloys

A. L. Romero, E. Calleja, F. García, E. Muñoz, A. L. Powell, P. I. Rockett, R. Grey, and P. A. Claxton

Appl. Phys. Lett. 61, 1811 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108382 (3 pages) | Cited 2 times

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DX centers in In‐mixed AlGaAs alloys are analyzed by deep level transient spectroscopy and capacitance vs temperature measurements. The addition of In to Si‐doped AlGaAs, with x=0.21 and 0.30, shifts the Si‐DX center to a shallower position. Under hydrostatic pressure, DX centers deepen again into the band gap. The DX center shift, and consequently, the reduction of the DX center electron occupancy, when In is added, is due to an increase of the Γ to L energy difference. In terms of band‐gap energy and DX center depth, adding 1% In is equivalent to a 1% Al reduction. Then, In mixing does not offer any new benefit to minimize DX center effects in AlGaAs‐based heterojunction devices.
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71.55.Eq III-V semiconductors
72.80.Ey III-V and II-VI semiconductors

HgTe‐CdTe superlattices for infrared detection revisited

T. H. Myers, J. R. Meyer, C. A. Hoffman, and L. R. Ram‐Mohan

Appl. Phys. Lett. 61, 1814 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108383 (3 pages) | Cited 8 times

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Selected properties of HgTe‐CdTe superlattices are re‐examined in light of the new consensus that the valence‐band offset is large. We conclude that while the cutoff wavelength for infrared detectors remains easier to control in superlattices than in the corresponding Hg1−xCdxTe alloy, the advantage is less than was predicted earlier assuming a small offset. The reduction of tunneling noise and minority carrier collection efficiency are discussed on the basis of revised electron and hole masses in the growth direction.
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85.60.Gz Photodetectors (including infrared and CCD detectors)
85.30.De Semiconductor-device characterization, design, and modeling
78.66.Fd III-V semiconductors
78.66.Hf II-VI semiconductors

Saturation of the defect density in hydrogenated amorphous silicon by pulsed light soaking

Nobuhiro Hata, Gautam Ganguly, Sigurd Wagner, and Akihisa Matsuda

Appl. Phys. Lett. 61, 1817 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108384 (3 pages) | Cited 12 times

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We report the first observation of saturation of the defect density and of the photoconductivity in hydrogenated amorphous silicon after light soaking with laser pulses. The saturated defect density reaches approximately the same value as the density established by soaking with continuous light. Comparison of pulsed with cw light‐soaking experiments, via an effective light‐soaking time, shows the use of pulsed light to be equivalent to that of continuous wave light, in defect saturation.
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61.80.Ba Ultraviolet, visible, and infrared radiation effects (including laser radiation)
78.30.-j Infrared and Raman spectra
78.40.Fy Semiconductors
72.40.+w Photoconduction and photovoltaic effects
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