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9 Nov 1992

Volume 61, Issue 19, pp. 2257-2370

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Frequency modulated mode locking of a diode laser pumped Nd:LiYF4 laser utilizing a KTiOPO4 phase modulator

S. Palese, L. Schilling, X. D. Wang, R. J. Dwayne Miller, Guo Zhen, and D. Brown

Appl. Phys. Lett. 61, 2257 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108257 (3 pages) | Cited 3 times

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A potassium titanyl phosphate phase modulator was used to mode lock a diode laser pumped Nd:LiYF4 laser at 270 MHz. The autocorrelation was 15 ps and the spectral bandwidth 73 GHz. The phase noise of the laser was found to be 70 fs for frequencies ≳100 Hz using a radio frequency spectrum analyzer technique. The high damage threshold and low absorption losses make this material well suited for the future development of high peak and average power laser systems. In addition, the low phase noise should be important for applications which require low timing jitter between a mode‐locked laser source and an electronic reference signal.
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42.55.Rz Doped-insulator lasers and other solid state lasers
42.60.Fc Modulation, tuning, and mode locking
78.20.Jq Electro-optical effects
42.70.Nq Other nonlinear optical materials; photorefractive and semiconductor materials

Femtosecond multiphoton generation of the self‐trapped exciton in α‐SiO2

W. Joosen, S. Guizard, P. Martin, G. Petite, P. Agostini, A. Dos Santos, G. Grillon, D. Hulin, A. Migus, and A. Antonetti

Appl. Phys. Lett. 61, 2260 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108258 (3 pages) | Cited 23 times

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Nonlinear optical excitation of crystalline quartz with intense femtosecond UV pulses yields the 2.8 eV recombination luminescence of the self‐trapped exciton. The relation between the excitation and emission intensities reveals two‐ and three‐photon kinetics for photon energies of 4.4 and 4.0 eV at excitation densities below 1018 cm−3. These power laws are not sizably influenced by transient linear absorption, self‐focusing, and filamentation.
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78.55.Hx Other solid inorganic materials
72.20.Jv Charge carriers: generation, recombination, lifetime, and trapping
72.20.Ht High-field and nonlinear effects
71.35.-y Excitons and related phenomena

Effect of proton exchange on the nonlinear optical properties of LiNbO3 and LiTaO3

Wei‐Yung Hsu, Craig S. Willand, Venkatraman Gopalan, and Mool C. Gupta

Appl. Phys. Lett. 61, 2263 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108259 (3 pages) | Cited 29 times

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The effect of proton exchange carried out using benzoic and pyrophosphoric acid on the nonlinear optical coefficient (d) of LiNbO3 and LiTaO3 was studied using a second‐harmonic generation reflectance technique. Significant degradation in the d coefficient of LiNbO3 and LiTaO3 was observed as a result of proton exchange with either benzoic or pyrophosphoric acid under the conditions studied. Some recovery only in the short time proton‐exchanged sample (0.5 h at 180 °C) of LiNbO3 was observed under thermal annealing at 350 °C for 1 h. Results of in situ measurement of second‐harmonic signal recovery under thermal annealing are reported. Results are also presented on theoretical and experimental variations of second‐harmonic generation intensity with an incident polarization angle.
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42.70.Nq Other nonlinear optical materials; photorefractive and semiconductor materials
42.65.Ky Frequency conversion; harmonic generation, including higher-order harmonic generation
42.79.Gn Optical waveguides and couplers

InGaAs/AlGaAs strained quantum well laser with semi‐insulating low temperature GaAs and lateral n‐p‐n current confinement structures grown by molecular beam epitaxy

T. Takamori, Y. K. Sin, K. Watanabe, and T. Kamijoh

Appl. Phys. Lett. 61, 2266 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108260 (3 pages) | Cited 5 times

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A combination of a lateral n‐p‐n junction using an amphoteric doping of Si in GaAs and a semi‐insulating GaAs grown at low temperature is applied for the first time to a novel current confinement structure for an index‐guided InGaAs strained quantum well laser grown by two‐step molecular beam epitaxy. A threshold current of 7.4 mA and total external differential quantum efficiency of 59% under room temperature continuous wave operation are achieved with devices fabricated by a self‐aligned process.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.60.-v Laser optical systems: design and operation
81.15.Hi Molecular, atomic, ion, and chemical beam epitaxy

Long pulse KrCl excimer laser at 222 nm

J‐M. Hueber, B. L. Fontaine, N. Bernard, B. M. Forestier, M. L. Sentis, and Ph. C. Delaporte

Appl. Phys. Lett. 61, 2269 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108261 (3 pages) | Cited 9 times

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A long pulse (up to 185 ns FWHM) KrCl laser at λ=222 nm has been achieved by combining x‐ray preionization and double discharge (spiker/sustainer) with fast ferrite magnetic switch. A relatively low pumping power (0.5 to 1 MW/cm3) and 25 cm gain length allows a maximum extracted energy of 115 mJ in 135 ns FWHM, with an overall energy efficiency of 0.75%.
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42.55.Lt Gas lasers including excimer and metal-vapor lasers
42.60.By Design of specific laser systems

DCM‐polyimide system for triple‐stack poled polymer electro‐optic devices

S. Ermer, J. F. Valley, R. Lytel, G. F. Lipscomb, T. E. Van Eck, and D. G. Girton

Appl. Phys. Lett. 61, 2272 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108262 (3 pages) | Cited 35 times

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We report development of the first all‐polyimide system (cladding/core/cladding) suitable for fabrication of electro‐optic waveguide devices on silicon substrates. The cladding layers are spun from a low optical loss, commercially available polyimide that is suitable for multilayer stacks. The electro‐optic material consists of this same polyimide as host to a commercially available guest chromophore and is based upon our prior work on thermoplastic polyimides [J. F. Valley, J. W. Wu, S. Ermer, M. Stiller, E. S. Binkley, J. T. Kenney, G. F. Lipscomb, and R. Lytel, Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 160 (1992)]. We present the materials and process development methodology with the results for this polymer system and demonstrate it by fabrication of an all‐polyimide Mach–Zehnder modulator operating at 830 nm.
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42.70.Jk Polymers and organics
42.79.Gn Optical waveguides and couplers
42.79.Hp Optical processors, correlators, and modulators

Fluorinated diphenyl‐diacetylene and tolane liquid crystals with low threshold voltage

Shin‐Tson Wu, Chain‐Shu Hsu, Yee‐Nan Chen, and Show‐Ru Wang

Appl. Phys. Lett. 61, 2275 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108263 (3 pages) | Cited 18 times

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Several new fluoro‐alkoxy and alkenyloxy (alkoxy with a carbon‐carbon double bond) diphenyl‐diacetylene and tolane liquid crystals are synthesized and their physical properties evaluated. Double bond position is found to make a pronounced effect on elastic constant, phase transition temperature and heat fusion enthalpy, but little change on birefringence, dielectric anisotropy, and viscosity. These compounds exhibit a high birefringence, low viscosity, and low threshold voltage, and are particularly attractive for infrared light valves and polymer‐dispersed liquid crystal displays.
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42.70.Df Liquid crystals
61.30.-v Liquid crystals

Graded index linear and curved polymer channel waveguide arrays for massively parallel optical interconnects

Ray T. Chen

Appl. Phys. Lett. 61, 2278 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108264 (3 pages) | Cited 12 times

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A single‐mode polymer‐based graded index channel waveguide array with 1250 channels/cm packaging density on a cross‐link induced photopolymeric thin film is reported. This array works at 1.31 and 0.63 μm. Curved waveguides with radii of curvature from 1 to 40 mm were demonstrated. Waveguide propagation loss in the neighborhood of 0.1 db/cm was experimentally confirmed at 1.31 μm.  
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42.79.Ta Optical computers, logic elements, interconnects, switches; neural networks
42.82.Et Waveguides, couplers, and arrays
42.79.Gn Optical waveguides and couplers
42.79.Ry Gradient-index (GRIN) devices

Subpicosecond gain dynamics in InGaAsP optical amplifiers: Experiment and theory

J. Mark and J. Mørk

Appl. Phys. Lett. 61, 2281 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108265 (3 pages) | Cited 94 times

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Pump‐probe measurements on bulk InGaAsP optical amplifiers are compared with numerical calculations based on simplified density matrix equations. We find that the gain dynamics is well described by the combined effect of carrier heating, spectral holeburning, and two‐photon absorption.
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78.47.-p Spectroscopy of solid state dynamics
78.45.+h Stimulated emission
42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes

Nonlinear optical studies of polar polymeric Langmuir–Schaefer films

S. H. Ou, J. A. Mann, J. B. Lando, L. Zhou, and K. D. Singer

Appl. Phys. Lett. 61, 2284 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108266 (3 pages) | Cited 3 times

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We report on the successful fabrication of X‐deposited multilayer films using the Langmuir–Schaefer technique incorporating nonlinear optical chromophores. This technique was used on films of a polysiloxane copolymer containing both a mesogenic and a nonlinear optical side chain. Both x‐ray and nonlinear optical studies of mono‐ and multilayer films reveal the head‐to‐tail deposition characteristic of X deposition. Both studies also indicate a highly polar noncentrosymmetric structure with nearly perpendicular orientation of the chromophore with respect to the film plane. The nonlinear optical studies also indicate a more tilted structure for the first layer and a second‐harmonic coefficient of d⊥⊥=5.3±0.5×10−9 esu.
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81.05.Lg Polymers and plastics; rubber; synthetic and natural fibers; organometallic and organic materials
81.15.-z Methods of deposition of films and coatings; film growth and epitaxy
42.70.Nq Other nonlinear optical materials; photorefractive and semiconductor materials
42.70.Jk Polymers and organics

Enhanced spectral power density and reduced linewidth at 1.3 μm in an InGaAsP quantum well resonant‐cavity light‐emitting diode

N. E. J. Hunt, E. F. Schubert, R. A. Logan, and G. J. Zydzik

Appl. Phys. Lett. 61, 2287 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108489 (3 pages) | Cited 57 times

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The active region of an InGaAsP single‐quantum well light‐emitting diode (LED) emitting at 1.3 μm has been placed in the antinode of a resonant cavity consisting of a 32‐period distributed Bragg reflector (DBR) and a top silver mirror, with reflectivities of 92% and 95%, respectively. The dominant feature of the 300 K electroluminescence emission at all current levels is a 3 nm (2.8 meV) wide spontaneous emission peak centered on the cavity resonance wavelength. The spectral power density of the structure is more than one order of magnitude higher as compared to a structure without cavity. The resonant‐cavity LED operates without gain yet the extremely narrow spectrum indicates that the structure is suitable for wavelength division multiplexing applications.
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85.60.Jb Light-emitting devices
42.50.-p Quantum optics
78.60.Fi Electroluminescence

All‐optical picosecond switch using organic single‐mode fiber waveguide

Hirohisa Kanbara, Masaki Asobe, Ken’ichi Kubodera, Toshikuni Kaino, and Takashi Kurihara

Appl. Phys. Lett. 61, 2290 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108267 (3 pages) | Cited 5 times

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A highly efficient optical Kerr shutter switch is demonstrated, using a 1 m long and 4 μm core diameter waveguide consisting of a capillary glass fiber. An organic solution of 4‐(N, N‐diethylamino)‐β‐nitrostyrene is used as a large nonlinear optical material and contained in the capillary glass fiber. A deuterated solvent is used to achieve a high transmittance, and a solution concentration is adjusted to attain a single‐mode waveguide. The very low driving power of less than 1 W is obtained with this organic solution fiber switch. A group‐delay analysis shows that a picosecond response time is feasible.
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42.65.Pc Optical bistability, multistability, and switching, including local field effects
42.81.-i Fiber optics
42.79.Ta Optical computers, logic elements, interconnects, switches; neural networks

Nanometer‐scale lithography using the atomic force microscope

A. Majumdar, P. I. Oden, J. P. Carrejo, L. A. Nagahara, J. J. Graham, and J. Alexander

Appl. Phys. Lett. 61, 2293 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108268 (3 pages) | Cited 83 times

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We demonstrate a new use of the atomic force microscope (AFM) for nanometer‐scale lithography on ultrathin films of poly(methylmethacrylate) (PMMA). The PMMA films were chemically modified as both positive and negative resists due to energy transfer from a highly localized electron source provided by metallized AFM tips. We were able to fabricate a line pattern with 68 nm line periodicity with about 35 nm line widths.
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81.05.Lg Polymers and plastics; rubber; synthetic and natural fibers; organometallic and organic materials
81.65.-b Surface treatments

In situ emissivity measurements to probe the phase transformations during rapid thermal processing Co silicidation

R. J. Schreutelkamp, P. Vandenabeele, B. Deweerdt, W. Coppye, C. Vermeiren, A. Lauwers, and K. Maex

Appl. Phys. Lett. 61, 2296 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108269 (3 pages) | Cited 6 times

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Phase transformations during RTP Co silicidation on both crystalline and polycrystalline silicon have been monitored for the first time by in situ emissivity measurements at a wavelength of 2.4 μm. The method can be used to accurately control the silicidation process and the final silicide phase. It is demonstrated that factors influencing silicidation, such as background doping level and the degree of crystallinity of the substrate can be determined. Ex situ emissivity measurements as a function of wavelength show that an analyzing wavelength of 10 μm can be applied to further improve the probing sensitivity for all silicide phase transformations.
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81.65.-b Surface treatments
85.40.Hp Lithography, masks and pattern transfer
61.72.uf Ge and Si

Interactions between beryllia and high‐lead glasses

L. Moro, P. Lazzeri, M. Prudenziati, B. Morten, and P. Savigni

Appl. Phys. Lett. 61, 2299 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108270 (3 pages) | Cited 1 time

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Interactions between BeO substrates and high‐lead glasses of typical composition for hybrid thick films have been studied by means of secondary neutral mass spectrometry. The Be atomic concentration on top of glass layers, 2–40 μm thick, prepared at various temperatures Tf, ranging from 750 to 1000 °C have been measured. The results give insight of Be solubility values from 0.5 to about 6 at. %, according to the glass type and firing temperature, and diffusion coefficients higher than 10−10 cm2/s. Moreover, the diffusion mechanism appears quite different from that involved in interactions between the same glasses and alumina substrates, since no correlated diffusion process has been observed in the present case.
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66.30.-h Diffusion in solids
81.15.Rs Spray coating techniques
68.65.-k Low-dimensional, mesoscopic, nanoscale and other related systems: structure and nonelectronic properties

Chemical ordering in Zn1−xFexSe alloys

K. Park, L. Salamanca‐Riba, and B. T. Jonker

Appl. Phys. Lett. 61, 2302 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108271 (3 pages) | Cited 17 times

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We have observed chemical ordering in Zn1−xFexSe (x≊0.5) epilayers as well as in nominal (ZnSe/FeSe) superlattices along the [001] growth direction and the [110] direction using transmission electron microscopy. The ordered structure consists of alternating ZnSe and FeSe layers along the [001] and [110] directions. In nominal (ZnSe/FeSe) superlattices grown on (001) GaAs substrates, strain‐induced interdiffusion between the layers takes place followed by ordering of the resultant Zn1−xFexSe alloys. Computer simulated images for a Zn0.5Fe0.5Se compound were obtained and compared with experimental images. To our knowledge, this is the first observation of ordering in a II‐VI alloy.
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68.55.Nq Composition and phase identification
07.79.Cz Scanning tunneling microscopes
61.05.-a Techniques for structure determination
61.50.Ks Crystallographic aspects of phase transformations; pressure effects

Annealing of recombination centers in the deposition and light induced high defect amorphous silicon

Jong‐Hwan Yoon and Yoon‐Zik Lee

Appl. Phys. Lett. 61, 2305 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108249 (3 pages) | Cited 1 time

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We have studied the annealing behaviors of deposition and light induced recombination centers, as measured by steady‐state photoconductivity, in undoped hydrogenated amorphous silicon. It was found that both annealing activation energies are identical, and of 1.1 eV. In addition, the annealing activation energies of 1.1 and 1.7 eV were found for dark conductivity recoveries in the deposition and light induced defect annealing, respectively. The results are discussed on the basis of the existing models for recombination centers.
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73.50.Gr Charge carriers: generation, recombination, lifetime, trapping, mean free paths
73.50.Pz Photoconduction and photovoltaic effects
61.72.Bb Theories and models of crystal defects
71.55.Ht Other nonmetals

Buffer‐induced modulation of carrier density and mobility in a selectively doped heterostructure

C. L. Reynolds and H. H. Vuong

Appl. Phys. Lett. 61, 2308 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108226 (3 pages) | Cited 3 times

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We report sizable variations in the carrier sheet concentration and consequently the mobility of the two‐dimensional electron gas as a function of the thickness of the first GaAs buffer layer deposited on the substrate. The results are interpreted as being related to increased intersubband scattering. Band bending and modulation doping are suggested as the physical mechanisms responsible for the modulation of the carrier density. Preliminary data show the importance of an interaction between the superlattice buffer and Si impurity at the interface.
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73.50.Gr Charge carriers: generation, recombination, lifetime, trapping, mean free paths
73.50.Dn Low-field transport and mobility; piezoresistance
73.61.Ey III-V semiconductors

30 nm CoSi2 surface layers for contact metallization in complementary metal‐oxide‐semiconductor processes

Sarah A. Audet, Alice E. White, Ken T. Short, Yong‐Fen Hsieh, Frances M. Ross, and Conor S. Rafferty

Appl. Phys. Lett. 61, 2311 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108227 (3 pages)

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Thin, low resistivity CoSi2 and TiSi2 surface layers have been realized through room‐temperature ion implantation of Co+ and Ti+, respectively, followed by low‐temperature annealing. TEM studies show that the layers are polycrystalline with large, uniformly thick grains. The results of leakage current measurements performed on junctions fabricated with and without CoSi2 surface layers illustrate the potential of this technique for contact metallization in sub‐half‐micron CMOS processes.
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85.40.Ls Metallization, contacts, interconnects; device isolation
85.40.Hp Lithography, masks and pattern transfer

CO2 laser assisted particle removal threshold measurements

S. J. Lee, K. Imen, and S. D. Allen

Appl. Phys. Lett. 61, 2314 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108228 (3 pages) | Cited 11 times

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Laser removal of particulates from solid surfaces was achieved using an energy transfer medium which preferentially adsorbs in the capillary spaces under and around the particulates on the contaminated surface. Subsequent laser irradiation causes explosive evaporation of the energy transfer medium and propels the particles off the substrate much like a small rocket engine. In our experiments, a TEA CO2 (10.6 and 9.6 μm) laser was used to remove 9.5 μm Al2O3, 5 μm Al2O3, and 1 μm polystyrene particles from Si surfaces using water as the energy transfer medium. At these wavelengths the laser energy is absorbed predominantly in the water not in the substrate. The threshold fluence for particle removal was found to follow a degenerate threshold model with measured thresholds significantly below the substrate damage threshold. The temperature rise in the energy transfer medium was estimated using energy conservation, suggesting that superheating of the adsorbed water is a reasonable mechanism for water assisted laser particle removal.
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81.65.-b Surface treatments
85.40.Hp Lithography, masks and pattern transfer
42.62.Cf Industrial applications

High valence‐band offset of GaSbAs‐InAlAs quantum wells grown by molecular beam epitaxy

P. W. Yu, D. C. Reynolds, B. Jogai, J. Loehr, and C. E. Stutz

Appl. Phys. Lett. 61, 2317 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108229 (3 pages) | Cited 11 times

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Photoluminescence measurements were made at 2–300 K on GaSbAs‐InAlAs single quantum wells lattice matched to InP grown by molecular beam epitaxy. The experimental exciton transition energy from the first electron subband to the first heavy hole subband was analyzed with calculated values obtained from the envelope function method. The quantum well exciton transition energy for well widths of 10–300 Å is fitted to a large valence‐band offset (ΔEv) of 0.93 ΔEg. The exciton linewidth increases with decreasing well width. The two dominant exciton line broadening mechanisms were found to be monolayer fluctuations of the well width and the band filling of electron.
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78.55.Cr III-V semiconductors
78.66.Fd III-V semiconductors
78.66.Hf II-VI semiconductors

Free electron laser induced two‐photon absorption in Hg1−xCdxTe

J. Burghoorn, V. F. Anderegg, T. O. Klaassen, W. Th. Wenckebach, R. J. Bakker, A. F. G. van der Meer, D. Oepts, and P. W. van Amersfoort

Appl. Phys. Lett. 61, 2320 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108230 (3 pages) | Cited 7 times

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The powerful output of FELIX, the recently built Rijnhuizen free‐electron laser, is used for the first frequency dependent study of nonlinear optical excitation of Hg1−xCdxTe in the far‐infrared spectral region. Two‐photon interband absorption has been investigated as a function of power and wavelength from 20 to 40 μm. This nonlinear optical absorption is used to perform autocorrelation experiments yielding the length of the micropulses of the free‐electron laser on a femtosecond time scale. The predicted dependence of the micropulse length on the synchronization between optical and electron pulses in the laser cavity is observed.
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41.60.Cr Free-electron lasers
42.65.Re Ultrafast processes; optical pulse generation and pulse compression
78.30.Fs III-V and II-VI semiconductors

Novel hydrogen‐gold‐related deep acceptor in n‐type silicon

Einar Ö. Sveinbjörnsson and Olof Engström

Appl. Phys. Lett. 61, 2323 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108231 (3 pages) | Cited 29 times

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Using deep level transient spectroscopy (DLTS) on gold‐doped n‐type Czochralski (CZ) and float zone (FZ) silicon we observe a new gold‐related acceptor level (G) with an activation energy ΔE=0.19 eV and an electron capture cross section σn=1×10−17 cm2. The center is formed after hydrogenation by etching a few microns off the sample surface using HF:HNO3 based etch. We suggest that there are (at least) two possible Au‐H complex centers, one which is electrically inactive and another which gives rise to an acceptor level (ΔE=0.19 eV) in the band gap of n‐type silicon. The electrically active center anneals out at 250 °C while the electrically inactive one is more stable and has been observed earlier in remote plasma hydrogenation experiments performed at 150–350 °C.  
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71.55.Ht Other nonmetals
61.72.Bb Theories and models of crystal defects
66.30.J- Diffusion of impurities
81.65.-b Surface treatments

Oxygen based electron cyclotron resonance etching of semiconducting homoepitaxial diamond films

S. A. Grot, R. A. Ditizio, G. Sh. Gildenblat, A. R. Badzian, and S. J. Fonash

Appl. Phys. Lett. 61, 2326 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108232 (3 pages) | Cited 12 times

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Oxygen‐based electron cyclotron resonance (ECR) plasma etching of boron doped homoepitaxial diamond films with no de bias has been achieved. The process was developed to the point where it can provide a uniform and reproducible etching procedure that yields smooth damage‐free etched surfaces. Etch rates attained under these conditions of smooth damage‐free etched surfaced were about 86 Å/min.
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81.65.-b Surface treatments

Degradation and breakdown of silicon dioxide films on silicon

D. J. DiMaria, D. Arnold, and E. Cartier

Appl. Phys. Lett. 61, 2329 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108233 (3 pages) | Cited 35 times

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Destructive breakdown in silicon dioxide is shown to be strongly correlated to the oxide degradation caused by hot‐electron‐induced defect production and charge trapping near the interfaces of the films. Two well‐defined transitions in the charge‐to‐breakdown data as a function of field and oxide thickness are shown to coincide with the onset of trap creation and impact ionization by electrons with energies exceeding 2 and 9 eV, respectively.
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73.40.Qv Metal-insulator-semiconductor structures (including semiconductor-to-insulator)
71.55.Ht Other nonmetals
77.22.Jp Dielectric breakdown and space-charge effects
73.61.Ng Insulators
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