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4 Jan 1993

Volume 62, Issue 1, pp. 1-112

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Highly accurate etching of ridge‐waveguide directional couplers using in situ reflectance monitoring and periodic multilayers

G. A. Vawter, J. F. Klem, G. R. Hadley, and S. H Kravitz

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 1 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108805 (3 pages) | Cited 14 times

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A novel periodic multilayer structure has been used in conjunction with in situ reflectance monitoring to give ±10 nm endpoint detection during reactive‐ion‐beam etching. The method has been used to fabricate ridge‐waveguide directional couplers in GaAs/AlGaAs having coupling lengths within 100 μm of the desired 650 μm value. The added loss due to coupling length error was only 0.3 dB per guide. The method is directly applicable to photonic integrated circuits employing complex optical routing of waveguides, directional couplers and y‐junctions where total height of the waveguide plays a key role in performance of the circuit.
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42.82.Cr Fabrication techniques; lithography, pattern transfer
42.82.Et Waveguides, couplers, and arrays

Free‐running XeF(C‐A) lasing at 2.2 atm in a commercial discharge excimer laser

Yong‐Kang Cheng, Shao‐Peng Yang, Min‐Xiao Wang, and Zu‐Guang Ma

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 4 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108815 (3 pages) | Cited 3 times

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Efficient free‐running lasing on the XeF(C‐A) electronic transition has been demonstrated in an unmodified commercial discharge excited excimer laser at a reduced buffer gas pressure of 2.2 atm and a moderate low pump rate of 2.76 MW/cm3, using a four‐component gas mixture of Xe, NF3, Kr, and He with a net peak gain of 1.24%/cm. The laser spectrum showed a peak wavelength at 477 nm and a bandwidth of 32 nm (FWHM). The laser output energy was 1.17 mJ, representing peak power, energy density, and intrinsic efficiency values of 0.062 MW, 9 mJ/l, and 0.016%, respectively.
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42.55.Lt Gas lasers including excimer and metal-vapor lasers
42.60.Da Resonators, cavities, amplifiers, arrays, and rings

Triple slab radio‐frequency discharged CO2 laser

A. Lapucci and G. Cangioli

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 7 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108778 (3 pages) | Cited 5 times

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The operation of a laser having both the advantages of large area discharges and those of laser arrays is reported. The laser consists of three parallel optical channels (slabs) with a rectangular section. Locked emission due to distributed coupling of the three slabs is observed. The resulting far‐field pattern displays the presence of a symmetric central lobe corresponding to a 2 Mrad divergence and some residual sidelobes due to the laser periodic structure in one transverse direction. Such a far‐field can be handled by Talbot imaging techniques, and the structure can be scaled to a higher number of channels.
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42.55.Lt Gas lasers including excimer and metal-vapor lasers
42.60.Da Resonators, cavities, amplifiers, arrays, and rings

Distributed nature of quantum‐well lasers

N. Tessler and G. Eisenstein

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 10 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108827 (3 pages) | Cited 30 times

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In this letter, we show that a quantum‐well laser should be modeled as a distributed, rather than a lumped, device. Using a detailed model of current injection which analyzes electron and hole distribution in space as well as in energy, we demonstrate that the static and dynamic laser responses are not uniform along the growth axis.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes

Phase locking between light pulses and a resonant tunneling diode oscillator

A. F. Lann, E. Grumann, A. Gabai, J. E. Golub, and P. England

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 13 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108829 (3 pages) | Cited 11 times

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We report the phase locking of an oscillating GaAs/AlGaAs resonant tunneling diode (RTD) to a train of optical pulses. Locking was achieved by direct illumination of a specially designed RTD with a diode laser pulse train. Locking occurs at all rational frequency ratios and with excitation energies as low as 0.1 pJ/pulse for the principle lock.
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85.30.Mn Junction breakdown and tunneling devices (including resonance tunneling devices)
85.60.-q Optoelectronic devices
73.40.Gk Tunneling

Nonuniform photobleaching of dyed polymers for optical waveguides

R. S. Moshrefzadeh, D. K. Misemer, M. D. Radcliffe, C. V. Francis, and S. K. Mohapatra

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 16 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108830 (3 pages) | Cited 19 times

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An experimental technique for calibrating the photobleaching process in a nonlinear optical material is presented. The technique depends on the existence of a sharp interface between the bleached and unbleached layers of the material which travels across the film but otherwise has a constant shape. The sharp interface of constant shape is a feature of a general model and is consistent with our experimental results. By determining the dependence of the velocity on the bleaching intensity, the order of the photobleaching kinetics is determined.
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42.70.Jk Polymers and organics
42.79.Gn Optical waveguides and couplers
42.82.Cr Fabrication techniques; lithography, pattern transfer

Resonantly enhanced, frequency doubling of an 820 nm GaAlAs diode laser in a potassium lithium niobate crystal

J. J. E. Reid

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 19 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108831 (3 pages) | Cited 32 times

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A potassium lithium niobate crystal was used to double the resonantly enhanced emission of an 820 nm GaAlAs, single‐mode diode laser. With a passive resonator enhancement factor of 73 and 11.5 mW of incident near‐infrared power, 0.36 mW of second harmonic were produced in quasi‐cw operation. The optical quality of the crystal is described and compared with that of KNbO3.
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42.65.Ky Frequency conversion; harmonic generation, including higher-order harmonic generation
42.70.Nq Other nonlinear optical materials; photorefractive and semiconductor materials

All‐electronic generation of 880 fs, 3.5 V shockwaves and their application to a 3 THz free‐space signal generation system

D. W. Van Der Weide, J. S. Bostak, B. A. Auld, and D. M. Bloom

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 22 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108806 (3 pages) | Cited 17 times

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We report the first subpicosecond shockwaves ever generated and measured by entirely electronic means. These shockwaves have 880 fs fall times with 3.5 V amplitudes. This was accomplished at T=77 K with a monolithic nonlinear transmission line and diode sampling bridge fabricated on GaAs. We have used these circuits with integrated antennas to generate freely propagating pulses and have detected measurable radiation beyond 3 THz.
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84.40.-x Radiowave and microwave (including millimeter wave) technology
85.40.Qx Microcircuit quality, noise, performance, and failure analysis
07.57.Kp Bolometers; infrared, submillimeter wave, microwave, and radiowave receivers and detectors

Ion deflection due to sheath field curvature

C. M. Horwitz

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 25 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108807 (3 pages) | Cited 9 times

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Plasma sheath electric fields, hence ion motions, deviate near patterned substrate features. This results in a basic directionality limit to ion‐assisted processes. Ion deviation is here derived analytically for dc sheaths, and expressed as an ‘‘ion isotropy ratio,’’ the fraction of ions bombarding a trench sidewall instead of its bottom. This ratio is equal to (trench depth/ion acceleration distance) multiplied by a factor of about 0.5. Thus, ion deviation is especially significant for discharges with small sheath heights and yields a fundamental tradeoff between ion directionality, ion energy, and permissible ion current.
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81.65.-b Surface treatments
85.40.Hp Lithography, masks and pattern transfer
52.40.Hf Plasma-material interactions; boundary layer effects

Measurement of CO2 laser small angle Thomson scattering on a magnetically confined plasma

R. K. Richards, D. P. Hutchinson, C. A. Bennett, H. T. Hunter, and C. H. Ma

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 28 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108808 (3 pages) | Cited 10 times

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We report the first successful small‐angle (less than 1°) Thomson scattering measurement of 10 μm radiation from a magnetically confined toroidal plasma. This represents a proof‐of‐principle demonstration of a new diagnostic technique for confined deuterium‐tritium fusion‐product alpha particles in future fusion reactors. This result was achieved by detecting scattered CO2 laser light from the plasma of the ATF torsatron at an angle of 0.86° using a novel heterodyne receiver scheme. A predicted resonance in the scattered power as a function of plasma electron density is clearly resolved in the measurements.
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52.70.Kz Optical (ultraviolet, visible, infrared) measurements
52.25.Tx Emission, absorption, and scattering of particles
52.70.Nc Particle measurements

Investigation of the growth mechanism of diamond (111) facets using high resolution electron energy loss spectroscopy

Biwu Sun, Xiaopin Zhang, Qinzhe Zhang, and Zhangda Lin

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 31 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108809 (3 pages) | Cited 28 times

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Diamond (111) facets deposited at 0.2% CH4 by remote feed with hot filament chemical vapor deposition (HFCVD) method have been investigated using high resolution electron energy loss spectroscopy (HREELS). The grown diamond (111) facets are terminated by CH radicals. With the help of atomic deuterium reaction with (111) facets, it is found that (111) facets consist of (111) faces and {110} steps, and atomic deuterium first replaces the hydrogen atoms adsorbed on (111) faces. After the continuous growth of grown diamond (111) facets at 0.2% CH4 of local feed for 30 min, CH3 vibrational modes on (111) facets have been detected. It is suggested that both C2H2 and CH3/CH4 contribute to the growth of diamond (111) surface, the C2H2 species to the growth along [011] direction, and CH3 radicals to the formation of kernels.
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81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)

Ion implanted, outdiffusion produced diamond thin films

H. A. Hoff, D. J. Vestyck, J. E. Butler, and J. F. Prins

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 34 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108810 (3 pages) | Cited 6 times

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A thin film, produced by carbon ion implantation and outdiffusion at the temperature of irradiation, has been confirmed to be diamond using micro‐Raman spectroscopy and electron diffraction. The Raman spectra contained a definitive diamond peak shifted slightly from that of natural diamond. This shift may be due to residual strain and is consistent with the broad linewidth. Fragments of the film over a micron in size were examined with transmission electron microscopy and found to be untwinned, single crystals. The film had been produced on a polycrystalline copper substrate. The carbon ions were at an ion energy of 120 keV and the irradiation was carried out to a high dose.
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68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology

Nucleation enhancement of diamond with amorphous films

Paul N. Barnes and Richard L. C. Wu

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 37 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108811 (3 pages) | Cited 40 times

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The nucleation and growth of diamond on pretreated Si substrates were studied. The diamond films were produced by microwave plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD). The pretreatment consisted of an amorphous carbon film also deposited by microwave PECVD. The Si was previously scratched with 0.5 μm diamond paste and cleaned in acetone. This pretreatment of Si resulted in diamond nucleation at densities averaging around 3×1010 cm−2, several orders of magnitude higher than scratched Si alone.
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81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)

Room temperature reactions involving silicon dangling bond centers and molecular hydrogen in amorphous SiO2 thin films on silicon

J. F. Conley and P. M. Lenahan

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 40 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108812 (3 pages) | Cited 26 times

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Exposing thin films of amorphous SiO2 to molecular hydrogen at room temperature converts some silicon dangling bond defects, E′ centers, into two hydrogen coupled complexes. These reactions may play important roles in radiation and hot carrier instabilities in metal/oxide/silicon devices.  
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85.30.Tv Field effect devices
61.72.Cc Kinetics of defect formation and annealing
73.40.Qv Metal-insulator-semiconductor structures (including semiconductor-to-insulator)

Dynamic model for pseudomorphic structures grown on compliant substrates: An approach to extend the critical thickness

D. Teng and Y. H. Lo

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 43 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108813 (3 pages) | Cited 34 times

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We use a dynamic model to analyze the critical thickness for pseudomorphic structures grown on thin membranes considering the strain relaxation process. Our results show that a pseudomorphic structure of arbitrary thickness can be achieved on a semiconductor membrane which works as a compliant substrate. The analysis on GaAs/InGaAs material system shows that the membrane should be thinner than 1200 Å for 1% strain and 1 μm for 0.5% strain. Such thickness can be achieved by existing technology. Using the proposed method, semiconductor lasers of yellow and green colors, among many new devices, can be fabricated with strained InGaP/InAlGaP active and cladding layers on GaAs substrates.
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68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology

Effect of surface tension on the growth mode of highly strained InGaAs on GaAs(100)

C. W. Snyder, B. G. Orr, and H. Munekata

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 46 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108814 (3 pages) | Cited 46 times

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We have investigated the molecular beam epitaxy growth of highly strained InGaAs on GaAs(100) as a function of the anion to cation flux ratio. Using reflection high energy electron diffraction the evolution of the film morphology is monitored and the surface lattice constant is measured. It is found that the cation to anion flux ratio dramatically affects the growth mode. Under arsenic‐rich conditions, growth is characterized by a two‐dimensional (2D) to three‐dimensional (3D) morphological transformation. However, for cation‐stabilized conditions, 3D islanding is completely suppressed, and 2D planar growth is observed. We associate these differences in the growth mode with corresponding changes in the surface tension of the overlayer. A high surface tension stabilizes 2D growth. An analysis which relates surface tension to a critical thickness for the onset of coherent island formation supports this view.
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81.15.Hi Molecular, atomic, ion, and chemical beam epitaxy

Fabrication of GaAs arrowhead‐shaped quantum wires by metalorganic chemical vapor deposition selective growth

S. Tsukamoto, Y. Nagamune, M. Nishioka, and Y. Arakawa

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 49 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.109614 (3 pages) | Cited 29 times

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We fabricated GaAs arrowhead‐shaped quantum wires utilizing both the selective growth technique and the difference in the stabilized crystal facet between GaAs and Al0.4Ga0.6As; the stabilized facet of the GaAs layer is (111)A and that of the Al0.4Ga0.6As layer is (311)A. A systematic change in the size of the quantum wire exhibits blue shifts of the photoluminescence peak, which is due to enhancement of the two‐dimensional quantum confinement effect.
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81.15.Kk Vapor phase epitaxy; growth from vapor phase
78.55.Cr III-V semiconductors

Carrier transport limited bandwidth of 1.55 μm quantum‐well lasers

A. Grabmaier, M. Schöfthaler, A. Hangleiter, C. Kazmierski, M. Blez, and A. Ougazzaden

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 52 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108816 (3 pages) | Cited 16 times

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We present the first measurements of the dynamic response of InGaAs/InGaAsP multiquantum‐well lasers which clearly show the effect of the carrier transport phenomena on the modulation response. Using our parasitic‐free optical modulation method, we separate an intrinsic RC‐like component in the frequency response from normal resonance behavior. The bandwidth is strongly limited by this low‐pass rolloff that can be described by a structure‐dependent transport time. It is shown that, therefore, the K factor may not be a reasonable quantity for evaluating the ultimate bandwidth.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.55.Rz Doped-insulator lasers and other solid state lasers
42.65.Re Ultrafast processes; optical pulse generation and pulse compression

Auger recombination in intrinsic GaAs

U. Strauss, W. W. Rühle, and K. Köhler

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 55 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108817 (3 pages) | Cited 49 times

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The recombination kinetics of the electron‐hole plasma in strongly excited, intrinsic GaAs is investigated at room temperature by time‐resolved photoluminescence using a line‐shape analysis of transient spectra. Special structuring of the samples prevents stimulated emission and diffusion. Population of higher energetic subsidiary conduction‐band valleys must be taken into account for densities ≳1.5×1019 cm−3. A significant influence of Auger recombination is detected for densities ≳2.5×1019 cm−3. The bimolecular recombination coefficient and an effective Auger coefficient are found to be B=(1.7±0.2)×10−10 cm3 s−1 and Ceff=(7±4)×10−30 cm6 s−1, respectively.
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72.20.Jv Charge carriers: generation, recombination, lifetime, and trapping
78.47.-p Spectroscopy of solid state dynamics

On the doping efficiency of nitrogen in hydrogenated amorphous germanium

I. Chambouleyron and A. R. Zanatta

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 58 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108818 (3 pages) | Cited 15 times

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This letter reports on the doping efficiency of nitrogen in a‐Ge:H films of electronic quality. It has been found that nitrogen is an effective dopant in the a‐Ge:H network, its doping efficiency being similar to the one corresponding to phosphorus in a‐Si:H. The concentration of active nitrogen atoms decreases with impurity content following a square root dependence on total nitrogen. This behavior is similar to the one determined for column V dopants in a‐Si:H films of electronic quality.
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61.72.up Other materials
72.80.Ng Disordered solids

Growth of analog AlxGa1−xAs/GaAs parabolic quantum wells by molecular beam epitaxy

S. M. Wang, G. Treideris, W. Q. Chen, and T. G. Andersson

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 61 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108819 (2 pages) | Cited 6 times

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Parabolic AlxGa1−xAs/GaAs quantum wells have been grown by molecular beam epitaxy with linear ramping of the Al effusion cell temperature, where the ramping rate was carefully analyzed to avoid a flux lag. The calculated potential profile from the temperature variation was very close to the parabolic one. Low‐temperature photoluminescence showed clear interband transitions up to the n=3 sublevels. The equal energy spacing between adjacent transitions involving heavy‐hole states confirmed the parabolic shape of the quantum well.
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81.15.Hi Molecular, atomic, ion, and chemical beam epitaxy
78.55.Cr III-V semiconductors

Decay time of the blue luminescence in ZnSe at room temperature

Jia Zhen Zheng, J. W. Allen, D. E. Spence, W. E. Sleat, and W. Sibbett

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 63 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108820 (3 pages) | Cited 10 times

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The decay time of the blue luminescence at room temperature in n‐type ZnSe grown by metalorganic chemical vapor deposition has been measured, using a mode‐locked laser as excitation source and a streak camera for detection. Over an uncompensated donor concentration range 1017–1018 cm−3 the decay time is of the order of 100 ps. The short time is a result of strong nonradiative recombination: it is argued that the concentration of Hall–Shockley–Read recombination centers is high.  
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78.55.Et II-VI semiconductors
78.47.-p Spectroscopy of solid state dynamics
72.20.Jv Charge carriers: generation, recombination, lifetime, and trapping

Effect of growth conditions on the electrical and optical properties of AlxIn1−xAs (0.48<x<0.7)‐Ga0.47In0.53As heterostructures

A. S. Brown, J. A. Henige, A. E. Schmitz, and L. E. Larson

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 66 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108821 (3 pages) | Cited 1 time

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An increase of the Al‐ content of AlInAs layers above that of the composition which is lattice matched to InP (Al0.48In0.52As) has been shown to lead to increased Schottky barrier height [Lin et al., Appl. Phys. Lett. 49, 1593 (1986)]. This technique has been used to realize improved gate‐to‐drain breakdown voltage in AlInAs‐GaInAs modulation‐doped transistors designed for power applications. This letter reports the observation of an optimum growth temperature regime for the Al‐rich Schottky layers in the modulation‐doped structure. Growth in this regime results in the highest conductivity for modulation‐doped structures as well as the highest quality interface formation as determined from low temperature photoluminescence measurements.
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73.30.+y Surface double layers, Schottky barriers, and work functions
73.61.Ey III-V semiconductors
81.15.Hi Molecular, atomic, ion, and chemical beam epitaxy
85.30.Tv Field effect devices

Generation of dc substrate current in metal‐oxide‐semiconductor structures under an oscillating gate voltage

V. Mitra, A. Benfdila, R. Bouderbala, and H. Bentarzi

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 69 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108822 (3 pages) | Cited 1 time

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The present letter reports the results of the experimental measurements of the dc substrate current in metal‐oxide‐semiconductor (MOS) structures operated under a gate‐voltage signal oscillating under depletion limits. A new component has been detected in this current whose direction of flow is independent of the polarity of the applied gate voltage as well as the nature of the MOS structure. Its magnitude shows strong dependence on the frequency of the applied gate voltage, giving rise in general to three prominent peaks in the current‐frequency curve. Arguments are given in support of the view that this current has its origin from the charging and discharging of the surface‐states existing on the Si‐SiO2 interface under non‐steady‐state emission.
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85.30.Tv Field effect devices
73.40.Qv Metal-insulator-semiconductor structures (including semiconductor-to-insulator)

Electron transport mechanism in gallium nitride

R. J. Molnar, T. Lei, and T. D. Moustakas

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 72 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108823 (3 pages) | Cited 83 times

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The electron transport mechanism in autodoped gallium nitride films grown by electron cyclotron resonance microwave plasma‐assisted molecular beam epitaxy was investigated by studying the temperature dependence of the Hall coefficient and resistivity on samples with various concentrations of autodoping centers. The Hall coefficients go through a maximum as the temperature is lowered from 300 K and then saturate at lower temperatures. The resistivities in the same temperature range initially increase exponentially and then saturate at lower temperatures. These findings are accounted for if a significant fraction of electron transport, even at room temperature, takes place in the autodoping centers and that conduction through these centers becomes dominant at lower temperatures. The activation energy of these centers was found to be on the order of 20–30 meV. When the concentration of the autodoping centers becomes smaller than that of deep compensating defects, the material becomes semi‐insulating and transport by hopping in the compensating defects becomes dominant.
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73.50.Dn Low-field transport and mobility; piezoresistance
73.61.Ey III-V semiconductors
61.72.J- Point defects and defect clusters
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