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15 Mar 1993

Volume 62, Issue 11, pp. 1173-1303

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High power and high‐temperature operation of GaInP/AlGaInP strained multiple quantum well lasers

M. Mannoh, J. Hoshina, S. Kamiyama, H. Ohta, Y. Ban, and K. Ohnaka

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 1173 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108776 (3 pages) | Cited 15 times

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High power and high‐temperature operation of transverse‐mode stabilized 690 nm AlGaInP strained multiple quantum well lasers is described. Three 0.5% biaxially compressive strained GaInP (8 nm) wells were employed in the active region. Low threshold current of 36 mA and very high output power of 60 mW at high temperature up to 100 °C were obtained with 700 μm long lasers, whose facets were coated with antireflection–reflection films. This is, to the best of our knowledge, the first report that an AlGaInP laser has reached a cw output power of 60 mW at a high temperature of 100 °C. Very low degradation rate at 50 °C with 35 mW output power was confirmed.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.60.-v Laser optical systems: design and operation

Symmetric self‐electro‐optic effect device array grown by metalorganic vapor phase epitaxy using GaAs/Al0.04Ga0.96As shallow quantum wells

S. W. Lee, T. M. Kim, K. U. Chu, S. Park, M. S. Jeong, and O’D. Kwon

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 1176 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108777 (3 pages) | Cited 4 times

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A self‐electro‐optic effect device (SEED) epistructure grown by low‐pressure metalorganic vapor phase epitaxy (MOVPE) is demonstrated. The symmetric SEED using GaAs/Al0.04Ga0.96As shallow quantum well (SQW) exhibits a contrast ratio of 2.9 at 5 V bias with 50 pairs of GaAs wells. This high contrast results from the low background carrier concentration of absorption region which is obtained by the temperature controlled compensation of the acceptors and donors. The absorption data suggest that the MOVPE technique is comparable to the MBE technique in growing the high performance SQW epistructure.
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42.65.Pc Optical bistability, multistability, and switching, including local field effects
42.79.Ta Optical computers, logic elements, interconnects, switches; neural networks
81.15.Kk Vapor phase epitaxy; growth from vapor phase
78.66.Fd III-V semiconductors

Picosecond response of steady‐state photovoltaic effect in an asymmetrical graded semiconductor superlattice structure

J. M. Liu, L. P. Chen, C. T. Liu, C. A. Burrus, and A. Y. Cho

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 1179 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108726 (3 pages) | Cited 3 times

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A steady‐state photovoltaic effect of picosecond response speed has been observed in an asymmetrical graded InAlGaAs superlattice structure with a responsivity of ∼0.3 V/W and a saturation photovoltage of ∼0.3 V. For 10 devices of varying sizes ranging from 51 to 502 μm in diameter, the measured full width at half‐maximum of the impulse response to a 1.6‐ps laser pulse varies only twofold from 29 to 58 ps. The intrinsic rise time of each device is less than 10 ps. Steady‐state photovoltage signals were observed in all the devices when excited with 100‐ps–2‐μs laser pulses. No dc bias voltage is needed.
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73.50.Pz Photoconduction and photovoltaic effects
73.40.Kp III-V semiconductor-to-semiconductor contacts, p-n junctions, and heterojunctions
85.60.Gz Photodetectors (including infrared and CCD detectors)

Method for accurate growth of vertical‐cavity surface‐emitting lasers

S. A. Chalmers and K. P. Killeen

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 1182 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108727 (3 pages) | Cited 7 times

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We report a method for accurate growth of vertical‐cavity surface‐emitting lasers (VCSELs). The method uses a single reflectivity spectrum measurement to determine the structure of the partially completed VCSEL at a critical point of growth. This information, along with the extracted growth rates, allows imprecisions in growth parameters to be compensated for during growth of the remaining structure, which can then be completed with very accurate critical dimensions. Using this method, we can now routinely grow lasing VCSELs with Fabry–Perot cavity resonance wavelengths controlled to within 0.5%.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
81.15.Hi Molecular, atomic, ion, and chemical beam epitaxy

Unidirectional operation in a semiconductor ring diode laser

J. P. Hohimer, G. A. Vawter, and D. C. Craft

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 1185 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108728 (3 pages) | Cited 25 times

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We report the first demonstration of a unidirectional ring diode laser based on the use of an active crossover waveguide. The crossover waveguide introduces both a nonreciprocal loss and gain into the ring cavity to promote unidirectional lasing in the clockwise ring direction. Up to 95% of the continuous‐wave lasing output of 3.5 mW (at 150 mA ring current) is emitted from this preferred lasing direction. Unidirectional operation of the ring diode laser is also shown to increase the linearity of the light‐vs‐current curves, eliminating kinks otherwise occurring from gain competition in the ring cavity.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.60.-v Laser optical systems: design and operation

Self‐aligned buried‐heterostructure lasers grown entirely by metalorganic vapor phase epitaxy

Y. Kondo, K. Sato, and M. Yamamoto

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 1188 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108729 (3 pages) | Cited 1 time

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The effects of n‐type dopant on InP embedding regrowth by metalorganic vapor phase epitaxy (MOVPE) are studied. It is found that the growth of the n‐InP layer on the mesa structure is completely suppressed under a Se concentration of more than 8×1018 cm−3 and a mesa structure having a width of 1.1 μm. Using this novel MOVPE technique, a buried heterostructure laser diode is successfully fabricated without a selective growth mask. This achieves a threshold current as low as 14 mA, an external differential efficiency of 0.18 W/A, and an output power of more than 15 mW, at 25 °C.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
81.15.Kk Vapor phase epitaxy; growth from vapor phase

Theoretical analysis of extremely small linewidth enhancement factor and enhanced differential gain in modulation‐doped strained quantum‐well lasers

Takayuki Yamanaka, Yuzo Yoshikuni, Wayne Lui, Kiyoyuki Yokoyama, and Shunji Seki

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 1191 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108730 (3 pages) | Cited 4 times

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The possibilities of extreme reduction in the linewidth enhancement factor α and of chirpless operation are theoretically investigated in InGaAs/InGaAsP quantum‐well lasers. First, the condition for lasing operation at the peak of the differential gain spectrum is derived. Lasing characteristics are then calculated taking into account the effects of strain on the valence subband structure. It is shown that by appropriate application of detuning and p‐type modulation doping to a compressive‐strained quantum well, it is possible to reduce the α factor to virtually zero while keeping the laser operating in the region of positive gain.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.60.Mi Dynamical laser instabilities; noisy laser behavior

Relative intensity noise of vertical cavity surface emitting lasers

Daniel M. Kuchta, J. Gamelin, J. D. Walker, J. Lin, K. Y. Lau, J. S. Smith, M. Hong, and J. P. Mannaerts

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 1194 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108731 (3 pages) | Cited 22 times

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A study of the relative intensity noise (RIN) of two all semiconductor vertical cavity surface emitting lasers is presented. We find that the slope of the low frequency RIN agrees with theory for the fundamental mode only and that transverse modes introduce sharp changes in the RIN and put a limit on the minimum attainable RIN. For the fundamental mode, both devices achieve a RIN of less than −140 dB/Hz for optical powers less than 1 mW. This good performance is attributed to the high reflectivity of the cavity mirrors.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.60.Mi Dynamical laser instabilities; noisy laser behavior

Efficient laser performance of Nd:GdLiF4: A new laser crystal

X. X. Zhang, M. Bass, A. B. Villaverde, J. Lefaucheur, A. Pham, and B. H. T. Chai

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 1197 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108732 (3 pages) | Cited 12 times

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Laser action of Nd3+ doped GdLiF4 (GLF) has been demonstrated for both pulsed and cw laser pumped operation. A slope efficiency of 60% was obtained in either manner of operation. The spectroscopic properties and laser performance of Nd:GLF are very similar to those of Nd:YLF. GLF, on the other hand, can be doped with much higher Nd3+ concentration.
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42.55.Rz Doped-insulator lasers and other solid state lasers
42.70.Hj Laser materials

State filling effect on spectral linewidth of quantum well lasers

B. Zhao, T. R. Chen, J. Iannelli, Y. H. Zhuang, Y. Yamada, and A. Yariv

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 1200 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108733 (3 pages) | Cited 5 times

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The effect of state filling (undesired, but inevitable, carrier population in the optical confining layers) on quantum well laser characteristics such as modulation dynamics and threshold current has been well documented. Here we present experimental and theoretical evidence showing that the state filling also influences in a major way the amplitude‐phase coupling factor (α) of quantum well lasers and thus their spectral linewidth.  
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.60.Jf Beam characteristics: profile, intensity, and power; spatial pattern formation

Ultrahigh‐brightness, femtosecond ArF excimer laser system

K. Mossavi, Th. Hofmann, F. K. Tittel, and G. Szabó

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 1203 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108734 (3 pages) | Cited 9 times

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An ultrahigh‐brightness ArF excimer laser system is described that is capable of generating pulse energies of 60 mJ with a pulse duration of ∼700 fs. The system utilizes a newly developed seed pulse generation scheme based on spectrally compensated sum‐frequency mixing in beta‐barium metaborate (BBO), and a double‐pass discharge pumped ArF excimer preamplifier followed by an electron beam pumped power amplifier.
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42.55.Lt Gas lasers including excimer and metal-vapor lasers
42.60.-v Laser optical systems: design and operation
42.65.Re Ultrafast processes; optical pulse generation and pulse compression

Measurements of optical‐heterodyne conversion in low‐temperature‐grown GaAs

E. R. Brown, K. A. McIntosh, F. W. Smith, M. J. Manfra, and C. L. Dennis

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 1206 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108735 (3 pages) | Cited 16 times

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A low‐temperature‐grown GaAs interdigitated‐electrode photomixer is used to generate coherent power at microwave frequencies. An output power of 200 μW (−7 dBm) is generated by pumping the photomixer with two 70‐mW modes of a Ti:Al2O3 laser, separated in frequency by 200 MHz. This represents an optical‐to‐microwave conversion efficiency of 0.14%, which is within 50% of a prediction based on optical‐heterodyne theory. When two lasers are used and the frequency of one is tuned with respect to the other, the output frequency of the photomixer increases smoothly and the output power is nearly constant up to 20 GHz. At higher frequencies the power decays because of parasitic capacitance.
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85.60.Dw Photodiodes; phototransistors; photoresistors
42.65.Jx Beam trapping, self-focusing and defocusing; self-phase modulation

Spatial evolution of filaments in broad area diode laser amplifiers

Robert J. Lang, David Mehuys, Amos Hardy, Ken M. Dzurko, and David F. Welch

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 1209 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108736 (3 pages) | Cited 16 times

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We report a numerical model that demonstrates the evolution of a uniform array of filaments from random fluctuations in the input of a single‐pass semiconductor laser amplifier. We also report the first direct experimental observation of the spatial evolution of filaments in a broad area active grating semiconductor laser amplifier. The observed filamentation shows good agreement with the numerical model. This agreement suggests that such filaments may result from the unstable growth of microscopic fluctuations in the input and/or nonuniformities within the amplifier.  
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42.60.Mi Dynamical laser instabilities; noisy laser behavior
42.65.Jx Beam trapping, self-focusing and defocusing; self-phase modulation

Field‐assisted ion exchange in glass: The effect of masking films

B. Pantchev, P. Danesh, and Z. Nikolov

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 1212 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108737 (3 pages) | Cited 3 times

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The two‐step ion exchange process for the fabrication of optical waveguide structures in glass is studied. The first step is field‐assisted ion exchange through the structure forming ‘‘windows’’ in the masking films. It is established that, in the case of metal masking films, the exchange ability of glass in the region under the mask decreases significantly. The second ion exchange in these regions is even totally blocked when soda‐lime glass is used. The mechanism and the application of this effect are briefly considered.  
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42.79.Gn Optical waveguides and couplers
61.72.up Other materials
82.30.Hk Chemical exchanges (substitution, atom transfer, abstraction, disproportionation, and group exchange)

Textured growth of diamond on silicon via in situ carburization and bias‐enhanced nucleation

S. D. Wolter, B. R. Stoner, J. T. Glass, P. J. Ellis, D. S. Buhaenko, C. E. Jenkins, and P. Southworth

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 1215 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108738 (3 pages) | Cited 210 times

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Ordered diamond films have been deposited on single‐crystal silicon substrates via an in situ carburization followed by bias‐enhanced nucleation. Textured diamond films with greater than 50% of the grains oriented D(100)//Si(100) and D〈110〉//Si〈110〉 were grown in both a horizontal and vertical microwave plasma chemical vapor deposition reactor. Separate diamond films from each of the two reactors were analyzed both by scanning electron microscopy and Raman spectroscopy. The in situ carburization is speculated to form an epitaxial SiC conversion layer, thus providing an economical alternative to obtaining epitaxial diamond films on single‐crystal SiC.
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68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)

Structure of recrystallized silicon films prepared from amorphous silicon deposited using disilane

S. Hasegawa, S. Sakamoto, T. Inokuma, and Y. Kurata

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 1218 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108739 (3 pages) | Cited 10 times

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The structure of polycrystalline Si (poly‐Si) films, prepared by annealing of amorphous Si films deposited using Si2H6 and SiH4, has been investigated as a function of deposition temperature Td (450–580 °C) and annealing temperature Ta (550–1000 °C). A dominant texture of the poly‐Si films changed from 〈100〉 for Td below 500 °C to 〈111〉 texture for Td above 500 °C, independent of Ta. For Ta lower than 650 °C, a greater grain size was obtained by the use of Si2H6 rather than SiH4. It was suggested that the changes of these texture and grain size, respectively, are mainly controlled by Td and the deposition rate of the amorphous Si films.
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81.15.Np Solid phase epitaxy; growth from solid phases
81.40.Ef Cold working, work hardening; annealing, post-deformation annealing, quenching, tempering recovery, and crystallization
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology

Comparative influence of bias and nucleation layer thickness on the heteroepitaxial growth of InN on AlN‐nucleated (111) silicon and (00.1) sapphire

Thomas J. Kistenmacher and Wayne A. Bryden

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 1221 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108740 (3 pages) | Cited 6 times

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The effects of bias and nucleation layer thickness on heteroepitaxy in thin films of InN grown at 400 °C on semiconducting (111) silicon and insulating (00.1) sapphire are shown to be dramatically different. For example, the thickness of an InN film on nucleated (00.1) sapphire is independent of bias, while on nucleated (111) silicon the thickness varies by over a factor of two. Similarly, the excellent epitaxy of the InN films on nucleated (00.1) sapphire is unaffected by bias or AlN layer thickness, while quality epitaxy on nucleated (111) silicon is achieved only in a narrow range of these parameters. Determining the bounds for heteroepitaxial growth on (111) silicon is a crucial first step toward devices incorporating both sources or detectors and processing elements.
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68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
73.61.Le Other inorganic semiconductors

Formation of bulk Pd40Ni40P20 glass

H. W. Kui

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 1224 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108741 (3 pages) | Cited 4 times

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Bulk amorphous Pd40Ni40P20 has been formed by fluxing the molten specimen in anhydrous boron oxide. In this study, a new method to form bulk amorphous Pd40Ni40P20 glass in the absence of boron oxide is introduced. Two kinds of Pd40Ni40P20 ingots were used in the experiment. In the first type, glassy alloys were used while the second kind involved alloys that had not been treated before. Both types could be undercooled to the glass state in bulk form.
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81.05.Kf Glasses (including metallic glasses)
64.70.P- Glass transitions of specific systems
64.70.Q- Theory and modeling of the glass transition

Growth‐sector dependence of fine structure in the first‐order Raman diamond line from large isolated chemical‐vapor‐deposited diamond crystals

S.‐A. Stuart, S. Prawer, and P. S. Weiser

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 1227 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108742 (3 pages) | Cited 21 times

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The growth‐sector dependence of fine structure in the first‐order Raman diamond line is investigated for the first time in high resolution spectra taken from large isolated diamond single crystals grown using microwave plasma chemical vapor deposition on tungsten wire tips. The volumes of crystal beneath the (100) and (111) surfaces of these crystals were sampled using a high resolution Raman microprobe from which the line shape of the 1332 cm−1 diamond line was found to be distinctly different. A splitting of the diamond line into two components of up to 7 cm−1 was observed for (100) growth sectors. This splitting may be caused by the buildup of directional strain fields caused by the different fundamental growth processes occurring on the (100) and (111) growth surfaces. An additional third peak near 1326 cm−1 was only observed in (111) growth sectors and may be attributable to the presence of stacking faults.
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81.10.Aj Theory and models of crystal growth; physics and chemistry of crystal growth, crystal morphology, and orientation
78.35.+c Brillouin and Rayleigh scattering; other light scattering
81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)

Hybrid integration of bipolar transistors and microlasers: Current‐controlled microlaser smart pixels

Robert P. Bryan, Winston S. Fu, and Greg R. Olbright

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 1230 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108743 (3 pages) | Cited 6 times

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We describe the hybrid integration of GaAs/AlGaAs heterojunction bipolar transistors with GaAs/AlGaAs (850 nm operation) and InGaAs/AlGaAs (980 nm operation) vertical‐cavity microlasers to form ultra‐low‐drive‐current microlaser smart pixels. We achieved a single‐mode, low divergence, 1 mW output with a 70 μA base injection current and digital electronics matched input impedance. The integration technology is appropriate for the integration of optoelectronic integrated circuits to GaAs and Si microelectronics circuits.
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42.82.Fv Hybrid systems
42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes

Epitaxial metallic LaNiO3 thin films grown by pulsed laser deposition

K. M. Satyalakshmi, R. M. Mallya, K. V. Ramanathan, X. D. Wu, B. Brainard, D. C. Gautier, N. Y. Vasanthacharya, and M. S. Hegde

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 1233 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.109612 (3 pages) | Cited 67 times

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Epitaxial LaNiO3(LNO) thin films on LaAlO3(LAO), SrTiO3(STO), and YSZ are grown by pulsed laser deposition method at 350 mTorr oxygen partial pressure and 700 °C substrate temperature. As‐deposited LNO films are metallic down to 10 K. c‐axis oriented YBa2Cu3O7 (YBCO) films were grown on LNO/LAO as well as LNO/STO surfaces without affecting superconducting transition temperature of YBCO. Textured LNO thin films were grown on c‐axis oriented YBCO/STO and YBCO/YSZ . Transport measurements of these bilayer films showed that LNO is a good metallic contact material for YBCO.
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81.15.Fg Pulsed laser ablation deposition
74.78.Fk Multilayers, superlattices, heterostructures
74.72.-h Cuprate superconductors

Dimerization induced Be segregation in GaAs

J. E. Cunningham, K. W. Goossen, T. H. Chiu, M. D. Williams, W. Jan, and F. Storz

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 1236 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108744 (3 pages) | Cited 2 times

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We report the observation of a Be segregation rate in GaAs that depends linearly on Be content. When δ‐Be is codoped with δ‐Si this segregation dependence changes and is observed to follow a model of segregation we develop based on Be dimerization. Further, we present the first evidence that GaAs surfaces order upon δ‐Be deposition. The observed surface reconstructions could also result from Be dimerization. The energy gained from dimerization causes Be to segregate during growth.
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64.75.-g Phase equilibria
61.72.uj III-V and II-VI semiconductors
68.55.Ln Defects and impurities: doping, implantation, distribution, concentration, etc.

Low threshold 1.5 μm quantum well lasers with continuous linear‐graded‐index InGaAsP layers prepared by organometallic vapor‐phase epitaxy

Wei Lin, Chwan‐Yang Chang, Yuan‐Kuang Tu, Ting‐Arn Dai, Wen‐Jeng Ho, Gwo‐Yue Lee, Tian‐Tsorng Shi, and Hung‐Pin Shiao

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 1239 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108745 (3 pages) | Cited 2 times

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We report quantum well heterostructures with continuous linear‐graded‐index quaternary (CL‐GRIN‐QW) prepared by low‐pressure organometallic vapor‐phase epitaxy for the first time, by adopting the empirical flow‐rate formulas. The linear compositional profile has been confirmed using secondary ion mass spectroscopy. Laser diodes incorporating the CL‐GRIN‐QW active layer structure exhibit threshold current density as low as 402 A/cm2 with a cavity length of 1500 μm and extrapolated threshold current density of infinite cavity length of about 176 A/cm2. These results demonstrate the benefits of the continuous linear‐graded‐index separate confinement layers for low threshold laser operation. Besides, the photoluminescence intensity of a continuous linear‐graded‐index strained‐quantum well structure is found to be higher than that of an equivalent unstrained well design.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
81.15.Kk Vapor phase epitaxy; growth from vapor phase

Thermodynamic and kinetic processes involved in the growth of epitaxial GaN thin films

N. Newman, J. Ross, and M. Rubin

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 1242 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108746 (3 pages) | Cited 45 times

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See Also: Erratum

Show Abstract
Our experimental results using reactive magnetron sputtering, combined with earlier literature, are used to understand the thermodynamic and kinetic processes involved in GaN film growth and the limiting factors involved in the incorporation of nitrogen during the growth process. We show that GaN films fabricated with low pressure growth techniques (<0.1 Torr) such as sputtering and molecular beam epitaxy are formed under metastable conditions with a nonequilibrium kinetically limited reaction. For these methods, the growth process is controlled by a competition between the forward reaction, which depends on the arrival of activated nitrogen species at the growing surface, and the reverse reaction whose rate is limited by the unusually large kinetic barrier of decomposition of GaN. In practice, the thermally activated rate of decomposition sets an upper bound to the growth temperature.
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68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology

Metalorganic chemical vapor deposition of InP using phosphine modulation

M. K. Lee, C. C. Hu, and M. H. Lin

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 1245 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108747 (3 pages)

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In this study, a new epitaxial growth process was developed using phosphine modulation using conventional metalorganic chemical vapor deposition. With this method, phosphine was switched off a short time in each cycle and provided a metal‐rich growth surface. With higher surface mobility of indium atoms than that of InP molecules, crystal quality was improved significantly. Photoluminescence full width at half‐maximum 5.6 meV at 77 K was achieved under optimum growth conditions.
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81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)
81.15.Kk Vapor phase epitaxy; growth from vapor phase
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