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22 Mar 1993

Volume 62, Issue 12, pp. 1311-1438

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Phase locking in a multichannel radial array CO2 laser

E. F. Yelden, H. J. J. Seguin, C. E. Capjack, and H. Reshef

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 1311 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108715 (3 pages) | Cited 12 times

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Phase locking in an extended‐area, multichannel, radial array, carbon dioxide laser has been investigated. Preliminary self‐phase‐locking percentages as high as 62% were achieved with the device. The phase‐locking mechanism was determined to be the mutual optical coupling present within the central region of this geometry. As such, this region acted as a core oscillator to initiate a fundamental optical mode within each individual discharge slot.
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42.55.Lt Gas lasers including excimer and metal-vapor lasers
42.60.Da Resonators, cavities, amplifiers, arrays, and rings

Second‐harmonic generation of poled BaTiO3 thin films

H. A. Lu, L. A. Wills, B. W. Wessels, W. P. Lin, T. G. Zhang, G. K. Wong, D. A. Neumayer, and T. J. Marks

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 1314 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108716 (3 pages) | Cited 51 times

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Second‐harmonic generation of 1.064 μm incident light was measured on BaTiO3 thin films prepared by metalorganic chemical vapor deposition. Upon corona poling of the film, the second‐harmonic signal was significantly enhanced. The second‐order nonlinear optical susceptibility, d, of the poled film reaches ∼7.5 times that of the quartz. The enhanced second‐harmonic generation shows a very slow decay at room temperature.
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42.65.Ky Frequency conversion; harmonic generation, including higher-order harmonic generation
81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)

Single depressed‐index cladding ridge waveguide laser with a low aspect ratio

K. B. Kahen, L. G. Shantharama, J. P. Shepherd, and D. L. Peterson

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 1317 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108717 (3 pages) | Cited 1 time

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A novel ridge waveguide semiconductor laser diode is introduced, which contains a single depressed‐index cladding layer. Deployment of this layer significantly reduces the transverse beam divergence, while maintaining reasonable values for the optical confinement factor, Γ, and the lateral index step. For lasers with 500 Å active layers and ridge widths of 4 μm, we measured transverse and lateral far‐field beam divergences of 16.4° and 8.2°, respectively, and threshold currents of 67 mA for 500‐μm‐long devices.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.60.-v Laser optical systems: design and operation

Femtosecond index nonlinearities in InGaAsP optical amplifiers

K. L. Hall, A. M. Darwish, E. P. Ippen, U. Koren, and G. Raybon

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 1320 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108718 (3 pages) | Cited 47 times

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We present the first femtosecond measurements of refractive index nonlinearities in diode laser amplifiers at 1.5 μm. Our results are obtained with a novel measurement technique, based on a time domain interferometer with heterodyne detection that allows the study of polarization anisotropy in the refractive index nonlinearities. We observe index changes due to carrier heating and stimulated transitions, as well as an instantaneous refractive index change similar to that observed in AlGaAs devices.  
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42.65.-k Nonlinear optics
78.47.-p Spectroscopy of solid state dynamics
78.66.Fd III-V semiconductors

All‐optical switching devices based on large nonlinear phase shifts from second harmonic generation

Gaetano Assanto, George Stegeman, Mansoor Sheik‐Bahae, and Eric Van Stryland

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 1323 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.109611 (3 pages) | Cited 70 times

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We show that the large nonlinear phase shifts obtained from phase‐mismatched second harmonic generation can be used to implement all‐optical switching devices such as a nonlinear Mach–Zehnder interferometer and a nonlinear directional coupler.
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42.65.Pc Optical bistability, multistability, and switching, including local field effects
42.65.Ky Frequency conversion; harmonic generation, including higher-order harmonic generation
42.79.Ta Optical computers, logic elements, interconnects, switches; neural networks

Monochromatic all‐optical gate with 1 ps response time

J. Paye and D. Hulin

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 1326 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108719 (3 pages) | Cited 11 times

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A semiconductor nonlinear Fabry–Perot based on the optical Stark nonlinearity is designed as an optical gate. The device is driven by 1.2 ps light pulses with a spectrum narrower than the transmission resonance peak of the device to allow cascaded operation. One picosecond switching‐on and ‐off times are demonstrated with 5:1 contrast ratio, in single‐wavelength operation. Owing to its planar structure and ultrafast switching time, this device is the fastest all‐optical gate for monochromatic parallel processing ever reported.
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42.65.Pc Optical bistability, multistability, and switching, including local field effects
42.65.Re Ultrafast processes; optical pulse generation and pulse compression
42.79.Ta Optical computers, logic elements, interconnects, switches; neural networks
78.47.-p Spectroscopy of solid state dynamics

Frequency multiplication in actively mode‐locked semiconductor lasers

N. Onodera, A. J. Lowery, L. Zhai, Z. Ahmed, and R. S. Tucker

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 1329 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108720 (3 pages) | Cited 32 times

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We report a method that enables an external‐cavity semiconductor laser to be actively mode locked at multiples of the radio frequency (rf) drive frequency. The key to this method is the choice of the relationship between the external cavity resonance frequency and the rf drive frequency. The repetition rate of the output pulses is the lowest common multiple of the external cavity resonance frequency and the rf modulation frequency. The method has been demonstrated in a laser with a cavity resonance frequency of 1 GHz; 17 GHz pulse streams were generated using rf drive frequencies of 8.49 and 5.67 GHz.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.60.Fc Modulation, tuning, and mode locking

Refractive index gradients and light scattering in polymer‐dispersed liquid crystal films

Paul S. Drzaic and Anne M. Gonzales

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 1332 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108721 (3 pages) | Cited 20 times

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We compare the light scattering properties of polymer‐dispersed liquid crystal films incorporating different nematic mixtures. We find that, when powered, the turbidity of these disparate films share a common quadratic dependence on the refractive index difference between the nematic and polymer. In contrast, when we compare the turbidity of powered and unpowered films with the same refractive index difference, we find that the unpowered films scatter much more strongly. These differences show that the scattering cross section for a droplet depends not just on the refractive index of the polymer interface, but also on the structure surrounding the droplet.  
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61.30.-v Liquid crystals
42.70.Df Liquid crystals

Simultaneous scanning tunneling and optical near‐field imaging with a micropipette

Klony Lieberman and Aaron Lewis

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 1335 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108722 (3 pages) | Cited 26 times

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Cross correlated near‐field scanning optical microscopy and tunneling images are presented. These images were obtained simultaneously using a metal coated micropipette as both a tunneling and near‐field optical probe. The optical and tunneling images exhibit a strong correlation but also contain differences representing real surface features which either technique alone would not indicate. The effect of crosstalk between the tunneling and optical images and possible artifacts introduced to the optical image by the feedback are discussed.
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68.37.Ef Scanning tunneling microscopy (including chemistry induced with STM)
68.37.Ps Atomic force microscopy (AFM)
68.37.Rt Magnetic force microscopy (MFM)
68.37.Uv Near-field scanning microscopy and spectroscopy
07.60.Pb Conventional optical microscopes

Photoemission from U and Mg using a pulsed XeCl laser

J. Ivri and L. A. Levin

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 1338 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108723 (3 pages) | Cited 5 times

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We report results of photoemission from metal cathodes. The photon source was a pulsed XeCl laser of 10 ns width (FWHM). We obtained a photocurrent density of 600 A/cm2, a quantum efficiency of 8×10−5, and a calculated brightness of 1×108 A/(cm2 rad2) for a uranium cathode and a photocurrent of 60 A/cm2, a quantum efficiency of 8×10−6 and brightness of 1×107 A/(cm2 rad2) for a magnesium cathode. Space charge limited and emission limited photoelectrons were studied using high and low energy laser pulses, respectively. The uranium cathode was operated for over 50 h with no reduction of the photocurrent.
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41.75.Fr Electron and positron beams
79.60.Bm Clean metal, semiconductor, and insulator surfaces

Negative ion mass spectra and particulate formation in radio frequency silane plasma deposition experiments

A. A. Howling, J.‐L. Dorier, and Ch. Hollenstein

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 1341 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108724 (3 pages) | Cited 61 times

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Negative ions have been clearly identified in silane rf plasmas used for the deposition of amorphous silicon. Mass spectra were measured for monosilicon up to pentasilicon negative ion radical groups in power‐modulated plasmas by means of a mass spectrometer mounted just outside the glow region. Negative ions were only observed over a limited range of power modulation frequency which corresponds to particle‐free plasma conditions. The importance of negative ions regarding particulate formation is demonstrated and commented upon.
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81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)
52.80.Hc Glow; corona
52.80.Pi High-frequency and RF discharges

X‐ray emission from high‐Z mixture plasmas generated with intense blue laser light

H. Nishimura, T. Endo, H. Shiraga, Y. Kato, and S. Nakai

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 1344 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108725 (3 pages) | Cited 19 times

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A mixture plasma composed of high‐Z elements is proposed as an efficient converter of laser light to x rays. It is shown theoretically that an energy band of small opacity for one element, corresponding to a partial cutout on its emission spectrum, can be enhanced with a large opacity band of another element so that the mean opacity for the mixture with an optimum mixing ratio becomes larger than the opacities of the individual elements. As a result, higher re‐emission and efficient conversion to x rays can be expected for the mixture. Absolute x‐ray emission from Au‐Sm and Au‐Tb mixture plasmas irradiated with a blue‐laser pulse was measured for the first time. The results show a trend that the mixtures at the optimum mixing ratio give higher x‐ray conversion efficiencies than their constituent materials.
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52.25.Os Emission, absorption, and scattering of electromagnetic radiation
52.50.Jm Plasma production and heating by laser beams (laser-foil, laser-cluster, etc.)
41.50.+h X-ray beams and x-ray optics

Concentration profiles of surface atoms during epitaxial growth on vicinal surfaces

T. Shitara, T. Suzuki, D. D. Vvedensky, and T. Nishinaga

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 1347 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108674 (3 pages) | Cited 4 times

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Concentration profiles of surface atoms have been obtained from Monte Carlo simulations of epitaxial growth and compared with predictions based upon the original Burton–Cabrera–Frank (BCF) theory and with a modified BCF theory. The modification is a BCF‐type equation for a quantity that involves the concentrations of surface atoms in each of the possible environments and accounts for the fact that all atoms, not simply free adatoms, can participate in surface diffusion. Even at temperatures beyond those where growth becomes dominated by step advancement, the modified BCF equation provides a more accurate description of the adatom concentration profiles than that obtained using only the free adatom concentration, which is the central quantity in the original BCF theory. This is due to step detachment processes combined with the meandering of the steps, which leads to an effective source of free adatoms that is not taken into account in the original BCF approach.
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81.15.Hi Molecular, atomic, ion, and chemical beam epitaxy

Step equalization in epitaxial growth: A noise limited process

D. R. M. Williams and Mohan Krishnamurthy

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 1350 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108675 (3 pages) | Cited 13 times

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We present results from the Monte Carlo simulation of terrace size evolution by vapor phase growth on vicinal surfaces. We show that as a function of the number of added monolayers, the standard deviation of the step length distribution rapidly falls to a constant equilibrium value. We argue that recent analytical and numerical work indicating that the standard deviation falls continuously is incorrect because of a statistical preaveraging of the evolution equations. This has experimental importance as it shows that increasing the number of monolayers beyond a certain limit has no effect on the step size distribution.
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68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology

Grazing‐incidence x‐ray diffraction characterization of Co‐Pt magneto‐optical thin films

T. C. Huang, R. Savoy, R. F. C. Farrow, and R. F. Marks

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 1353 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108676 (3 pages) | Cited 12 times

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The microstructures of epitaxial CoxPt1−x films (x≊0.25 and 0.5) and the orientation relationships with sapphire (0001) single‐crystal substrates were determined by grazing‐incidence x‐ray diffraction. The epitaxial relationships between the CoPt3 film and its substrate are CoPt3[110]∥Al2O3[3030] and CoPt3(111)∥Al2O3(0001). A significant amount of the ordered L12 phase was detected in CoPt3. The degree of long‐range order in CoPt3 was 0.3, and the average domain size of the ordered phase was 80 Å. The CoPt film had two domains related by a 30° in‐plane rotation. The epitaxial relationships between the CoPt film and its substrate were CoPt[100]∥Al2O3[3030] and CoPt(011)∥Al2O3(0001) for domain A and CoPt[100]∥Al2O3[1120] and CoPt(011)∥Al2O3(0001) for domain B. Domain A was found to be dominant and/or had a higher degree of long‐range order than domain B.
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68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
75.70.-i Magnetic properties of thin films, surfaces, and interfaces
61.05.cf X-ray scattering (including small-angle scattering)
61.05.cj X-ray absorption spectroscopy: EXAFS, NEXAFS, XANES, etc.

Enhanced electro‐optic properties of low‐temperature‐growth GaAs and AlGaAs

D. D. Nolte, M. R. Melloch, J. M. Woodall, and S. J. Ralph

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 1356 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108677 (3 pages) | Cited 29 times

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The signal‐bandwidth products of excitonic electroabsorption of low‐temperature‐growth (LTG) molecular beam epitaxial films of GaAs:As and Al0.25Ga0.75As:As are larger than in the related stoichiometric materials. The enhanced electro‐optic properties of these composites may be caused by increased inhomogeneity of dc electric fields. The differential transmission in LTG Al0.25Ga0.75As:As annealed at 750 °C for 30 s is relatively broadband and approaches 60% for dc electric fields of only 1.5×104 V/cm.
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78.66.Fd III-V semiconductors
78.20.Jq Electro-optical effects
81.15.Hi Molecular, atomic, ion, and chemical beam epitaxy

GaxIn1−xP multiple‐quantum‐wire heterostructures prepared by the strain induced lateral layer ordering process

A. C. Chen, A. M. Moy, P. J. Pearah, K. C. Hsieh, and K. Y. Cheng

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 1359 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108678 (3 pages) | Cited 27 times

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We report the in situ growth of GaxIn1−xP multiple‐quantum‐wire (MQWR) structures by gas source molecular beam epitaxy. The MQWRs were formed through a strain induced lateral layer ordering (SILO) process occurring spontaneously when (GaP)n/(InP)n short‐period superlattices were grown on (100)‐oriented on‐axis GaAs substrates. In one sample, cross‐sectional transmission electron microscopy estimated average quantum‐wire cross sections of 50 Å×100 Å with lengths of over 3000 Å leading to a linear density of 100 wires/μm. The existence of the MQWRs is also supported by polarized photoluminescence spectroscopy. Anisotropy ratios for two orthogonal polarizations were measured to be an order of magnitude larger than any previously reported. These data support the existence of MQWRs and demonstrate that the SILO growth process is a consistent and reproducible method of MQWR fabrication.
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68.65.-k Low-dimensional, mesoscopic, nanoscale and other related systems: structure and nonelectronic properties
81.15.Hi Molecular, atomic, ion, and chemical beam epitaxy
78.66.Fd III-V semiconductors

Spontaneous bonding of hydrophobic silicon surfaces

Karin Ljungberg, Anders Söderbärg, and Ylva Bäcklund

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 1362 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108679 (3 pages) | Cited 25 times

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The initial attraction of silicon surfaces etched in aqueous and buffered HF solutions have been studied, by observing the spontaneity and velocity of the contact wave. Also, the effect of a following water rinse was investigated. The bond strengths were determined by measuring the surface energy of the bonds at room temperature. Surfaces etched in an aqueous HF solution, with no subsequent water rinse before drying and contacting, bond spontaneously. If water rinsing is performed after the etch, the spontaneity is lost and the surfaces bond only if a pressure is applied. Surfaces etched in a buffered HF solution did not bond.
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81.65.-b Surface treatments
68.35.-p Solid surfaces and solid-solid interfaces: structure and energetics

Photoluminescence excitation spectroscopy on intermixed GaAs/AlGaAs quantum wires

F. E. Prins, G. Lehr, M. Burkard, H. Schweizer, M. H. Pilkuhn, and G. W. Smith

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 1365 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108680 (3 pages) | Cited 24 times

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Quantum wires with widths down to 45 nm have been realized by implantation induced intermixing of a surface near GaAs/AlGaAs quantum well. A very steep lateral potential has been achieved together with extreme low damage in the wire regions. As a result the optical transitions in photoluminescence excitation spectroscopy could be observed for all wire widths. With decreasing wire width an increasing Stokes shift has been determined due to the increasing importance of fluctuations in wire dimensions. A weak wire width dependence of transitions near the former two‐dimensional light‐hole level was observed, which is attributed to the predicted reduced energy shift of states near this level.
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78.66.Fd III-V semiconductors
78.55.Cr III-V semiconductors
61.80.Jh Ion radiation effects

Shortfall of defect models for amorphous silicon solar cell performance

Bolko von Roedern

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 1368 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108681 (2 pages) | Cited 8 times

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It is suggested that the prevailing models for the Staebler–Wronski effect are incorrect because they ignore the effects of charged dangling bonds. The degradation behavior of material parameters such as photoconductivity or midgap defect densities does not allow us to predict either the magnitude or the kinetic behavior of solar cell degradation.
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72.40.+w Photoconduction and photovoltaic effects
72.80.Ng Disordered solids
61.80.Ba Ultraviolet, visible, and infrared radiation effects (including laser radiation)
84.60.Jt Photoelectric conversion

Surface reconstructions of GaAs(111)A and (111)B: A static surface phase study by reflection high‐energy electron diffraction

D. A. Woolf, D. I. Westwood, and R. H. Williams

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 1370 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108682 (3 pages) | Cited 20 times

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GaAs(111)A and (111)B static surface phase maps have been generated under a variety of substrate temperature and incident As4 flux conditions ranging from, respectively, 400–700 °C, and from 1×1014 to 1×1016 molecules cm−2 s−1. For the case of GaAs(111)A only a (2×2) reconstruction was observed. However, four GaAs(111)B surface reconstructions were identified below a critical As4 flux of JcAs4≂5×1015 molecules cm−2 s−1, viz.: (2×2); (1×1)LT; (√19×√19); and, (1×1)HT. Above JcAs4 the (√19×√19) surface phase was quenched, such that the (1×1)LT and (1×1)HT structures merged to form a single (1×1) phase. The transitions to and from each of these surface phases were found to be reversible, occurring at very specific substrate temperatures for a given incident As4 flux. The activation energies (ϵA) characterizing the reversible surface phase transitions were measured and compared with those on the GaAs(100) surface.
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81.15.Hi Molecular, atomic, ion, and chemical beam epitaxy
68.35.B- Structure of clean surfaces (and surface reconstruction)

Quantized conductance of ballistic constrictions in InAs/AlSb quantum wells

S. J. Koester, C. R. Bolognesi, M. J. Rooks, E. L. Hu, and H. Kroemer

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 1373 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108683 (3 pages) | Cited 14 times

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Split‐gate ballistic constrictions have been fabricated on InAs/AlSb quantum‐well heterostructures. Sharp conductance steps of 2e2/h are observed at 4.2 K, while conductance plateaus persist up to 30 K. The sharp features and high temperature operation are made possible by the low effective mass (m∗Γ= 0.023me) of InAs, and the closeness of the quantum well (20 nm) to the wafer surface.
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73.61.Ey III-V semiconductors
73.50.Dn Low-field transport and mobility; piezoresistance

Observation of increased photoluminescence decay time in strain‐induced quantum‐well dots

I‐Hsing Tan, Ying‐Lan Chang, Richard Mirin, Evelyn Hu, James Merz, Takashi Yasuda, and Yusaburo Segawa

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 1376 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108684 (3 pages) | Cited 8 times

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We report on the observation of increased photoluminescence (PL) decay time in strain‐induced quantum‐well dots (SIQWDs), 120 nm in diameter. Lateral confinement was generated in a GaAs quantum well (QW) by etching a doubly exposed grating pattern into a pseudomorphic, strained layer of In0.35Ga0.65As which overlies the QWs. By spacing three QWs of different widths at varying depths from the In0.35Ga0.65As stressor, lateral strain confinement and vertical strain propagation are directly resolved by the PL spectra. The decay time of the heavy‐hole‐like excitons in the SIQWDs from the uppermost QW is 420 ps at 2 K, which is longer than the 270 ps PL decay time of the heavy‐hole exciton in the reference QW sample.
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78.66.Fd III-V semiconductors
78.55.Cr III-V semiconductors
78.47.-p Spectroscopy of solid state dynamics

Oxygen‐related centers in chemical vapor deposition of diamond

J. Ruan, W. J. Choyke, and K. Kobashi

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 1379 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108685 (3 pages) | Cited 12 times

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Diamond films are grown using microwave‐plasma‐enhanced chemical vapor deposition (CVD). Some samples are deposited using 0.1% oxygen in the reaction gas mixture. We have measured the cathodoluminescence spectra of these diamond films (at 77 K) and found that there is a significant difference between the samples grown with oxygen and those without oxygen. Some of the impurity‐related luminescence peaks are reduced in intensity or disappear when 0.1% oxygen is used. On the other hand, there are new spectral features in the films grown with oxygen. We attribute some of these new features to oxygen‐related centers in diamond and conclude that oxygen could incorporate into the diamond lattice during the CVD process.
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78.60.Hk Cathodoluminescence, ionoluminescence
61.72.up Other materials
81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)

Picosecond photoconductivity in polycrystalline gallium arsenide grown by molecular beam epitaxy

Jeffrey D. Morse, Raymond P. Mariella, James W. Adkisson, George D. Anderson, James S. Harris, and Robert W. Dutton

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 1382 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108686 (3 pages)

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Picosecond photoconductivity in polycrystalline gallium arsenide (GaAs) layers grown on silicon dioxide by molecular beam epitaxy has been investigated. Photocurrent transient responses having full width at half‐maximum of ∼2.2 ps were measured by photoconductive sampling techniques. Interdigitated metal‐semiconductor‐metal photodiodes have been fabricated from the polycrystalline GaAs with 1.5‐ and 5‐μm electrode spacing. The corresponding responsivities measured are 40 mA/W and 0.15 A/W, respectively, at 10 V/μm bias voltage and 820‐nm wavelength. The corresponding effective mobility of this material is estimated to be μeff∼80 cm2/V s, making this photodetector competitive with alternative technologies for ultrahigh speed applications.
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73.50.Pz Photoconduction and photovoltaic effects
73.50.Dn Low-field transport and mobility; piezoresistance
85.60.Gz Photodetectors (including infrared and CCD detectors)
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