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17 May 1993

Volume 62, Issue 20, pp. 2459-2586

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Enhanced characteristics of InGaAsP buried quaternary lasers with pressures up to 1.5 GPa

D. Patel, C. S. Menoni, H. Temkin, R. A. Logan, and D. Coblentz

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 2459 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.109318 (3 pages) | Cited 7 times

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Pressure dependent measurements of the threshold current, differential quantum efficiency, and lasing wavelength of a ∼1.3 μm bulk InGaAsP semiconductor laser performed in a diamond anvil cell up to 1.5 GPa are reported. Results show a 40% decrease in the threshold current and a simultaneous enhancement in the differential quantum efficiency of approximately 350%. Large wavelength tunability of 140 nm is observed in this pressure range at room temperature. Calculations indicate that a reduction of the Auger recombination rate is likely to be the dominant loss mechanism responsible for the observed changes in the laser threshold current in this pressure range.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.60.Da Resonators, cavities, amplifiers, arrays, and rings
62.50.-p High-pressure effects in solids and liquids

Blue‐green injection lasers containing pseudomorphic Zn1−xMgxSySe1−y cladding layers and operating up to 394 K

J. M. Gaines, R. R. Drenten, K. W. Haberern, T. Marshall, P. Mensz, and J. Petruzzello

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 2462 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.109319 (3 pages) | Cited 127 times

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We describe the performance of blue‐green injection lasers containing Zn1−xMgxSySe1−y cladding layers. The devices have yielded the lowest reported threshold current densities (500 A/cm2) and the highest reported pulsed output powers (500 mW) at room temperature. Lasing has been observed at temperatures as high as 394 K. The room temperature and 85 K lasing wavelengths are 516 and 496 nm, respectively. The use of Zn1−xMgxSySe1−y, instead of ZnSzSe1−z, cladding layers provides a clear improvement in optical confinement, demonstrated by the widening of the far‐field pattern in the direction perpendicular to the layers. The lasers are separate‐confinement heterostructures with a ZnS0.06Se0.94 waveguiding region and a single Cd0.2Zn0.8Se strained quantum well. The entire structure is pseudomorphic with the GaAs substrate.  
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.60.-v Laser optical systems: design and operation

Nonlinear refractive‐index and two photon‐absorption near half the band gap in AlGaAs

Alain Villeneuve, C. C. Yang, George I. Stegeman, Chen‐Hui Lin, and Hao‐Hsiung Lin

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 2465 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.109320 (3 pages) | Cited 32 times

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The wavelength dependence of the nonlinear refractive index and two‐photon absorption coefficient near half the band gap was measured in an AlGaAs waveguide. The two photon figure of merit for efficient nonlinear optics in AlGaAs is shown to be quite favorable for photon energies less than one half the band gap.
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42.65.Pc Optical bistability, multistability, and switching, including local field effects
42.70.Nq Other nonlinear optical materials; photorefractive and semiconductor materials
78.20.Ci Optical constants (including refractive index, complex dielectric constant, absorption, reflection and transmission coefficients, emissivity)

Guided modes with ordinary refractive index in proton exchanged LiNbO3 waveguides

J. Olivares and J. M. Cabrera

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 2468 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.109321 (3 pages) | Cited 19 times

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A method is proposed and demonstrated to fabricate guiding layers on ordinary refractive index in proton exchanged LiNbO3 waveguides. The process consists of performing a reverse exchange in a melt very rich in lithium on a substrate previously exchanged in normal benzoic acid. Layers supporting several modes with ordinary polarization are easily obtained. Losses for these modes have been found to be below 0.7 dB/cm. Together with the increase of ordinary index, a decrease of the extraordinary one is obtained so that buried modes can be guided with this polarization. The influence on the reverse process of the exchange temperature, the substrate cut, and the melt composition is studied.
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42.79.Gn Optical waveguides and couplers
61.72.up Other materials
42.70.Nq Other nonlinear optical materials; photorefractive and semiconductor materials

Directional couplers with linear and nonlinear elements

W. D. Deering, M. I. Molina, and G. P. Tsironis

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 2471 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.109322 (3 pages) | Cited 4 times

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The switching characteristics of simple mixed linear–nonlinear configurations of directional couplers for single‐mode operation are investigated. For negative interaction coefficients, faster switching can be achieved at lower input power levels than in all‐nonlinear coupler configurations.  
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42.65.Pc Optical bistability, multistability, and switching, including local field effects
42.79.Ta Optical computers, logic elements, interconnects, switches; neural networks
42.79.Gn Optical waveguides and couplers

Analysis of wafer fusing for 1.3 μm vertical cavity surface emitting lasers

R. J. Ram, L. Yang, K. Nauka, Y. M. Houng, M. Ludowise, D. E. Mars, J. J. Dudley, and S. Y. Wang

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 2474 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.109323 (3 pages) | Cited 13 times

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We report low densities of electrically active defects and low optical losses at the wafer fused interface between InP and GaAs. Electron beam induced current analysis shows electrically active defects with an average spacing of 4.5 μm at the interface and significantly lower densities 0.4 μm from the fused interface. Optical measurements of a Fabry–Perot resonator made by fusing an InP epilayer to a GaAs/AlAs mirror demonstrate a 3% increase in mirror transmission after fusing and negligible absorption at the fused interface. Based on these results, we present design considerations for fused surface emitting lasers.
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78.66.Fd III-V semiconductors
73.40.Kp III-V semiconductor-to-semiconductor contacts, p-n junctions, and heterojunctions
42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.60.Da Resonators, cavities, amplifiers, arrays, and rings

Influence of electric and magnetic fields on THz radiation

X.‐C. Zhang, Y. Jin, L. E. Kingsley, and M. Weiner

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 2477 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.109324 (3 pages) | Cited 7 times

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We report measurement of the influence of electric and magnetic fields on optically induced THz electromagnetic radiation from semiconductors at normal incidence. The measurements show that electric and magnetic fields strongly influence the amplitude and phase of transient carrier‐generated THz radiation, but do not affect THz optical rectification generated by the bulk second order nonlinear susceptibility, for static electric fields up to 104 V/cm.
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42.65.Re Ultrafast processes; optical pulse generation and pulse compression
78.66.Fd III-V semiconductors

Reflectance of a chiral plate absorber

S. B. Liao and G. J. Yin

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 2480 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.109325 (3 pages) | Cited 3 times

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This letter presents the dependence of the reflectance of a single layer of plate absorber constructed by a chiral material on the chiral parameter. The results show that the absorber constructed by the chiral material has great advantages over that constructed by the general electromagnetic material (achiral material).
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78.20.Ci Optical constants (including refractive index, complex dielectric constant, absorption, reflection and transmission coefficients, emissivity)

Efficient modal dispersion phase‐matched frequency doubling in poled polymer waveguides

G. L. J. A. Rikken, C. J. E. Seppen, E. G. J. Staring, and A. H. J. Venhuizen

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 2483 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.109326 (3 pages) | Cited 12 times

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We report the design, manufacture, and characterization of poled polymer multilayer waveguides for frequency doubling. Phase matching is obtained by using modal dispersion between the zeroth‐order fundamental lightwave and the first‐order second‐harmonic wave. By incorporating a very thin high refractive index satellite layer, the phase‐match condition can be fulfilled with concomitant large overlap between the two waves, resulting in efficient doubling.
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42.65.Ky Frequency conversion; harmonic generation, including higher-order harmonic generation
42.70.Nq Other nonlinear optical materials; photorefractive and semiconductor materials
42.70.Jk Polymers and organics

High temperature operation of InGaAsP/InP heterostructure lasers and integrated back facet monitors fabricated by chemically assisted ion beam etching

Steven Dzioba, S. Jatar, T. V. Herak, John P. D. Cook, J. Marks, T. Jones, and F. R. Shepherd

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 2486 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.109327 (3 pages) | Cited 12 times

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Chemically assisted ion beam etching (CAIBE) has been used to etch InGaAsP/InP ridge laser facets. Smooth, vertical facets 4 μm deep have been etched using Ar/Cl2 CAIBE with a beam voltage of 440 V and a beam current density of 0.08 mA/cm2. Room temperature and high temperature (85 °C) L‐I characteristics and device performance have been evaluated, as well as the performance of integrated back facet monitors. Output powers of 9.5 mW from the laser and a monitor current of 3.75 mA have been obtained.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
81.65.-b Surface treatments
61.80.Jh Ion radiation effects

Optical bistability at 980 nm in a strained InGaAs/GaAs multiple quantum well microcavity with resonant periodic nonlinearity

D. Pellat, R. Azoulay, G. Leroux, L. Dugrand, Y. Rafflé, R. Kuszelewicz, and J. L. Oudar

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 2489 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.109328 (3 pages) | Cited 9 times

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We report on a novel monolithic all‐optical bistable device operating at 980 nm, based on the dispersive optical nonlinearity of strained InGaAs/GaAs quantum wells located at the antinodes of the microcavity optical field. This design maximizes the interaction with the intracavity field and allowed to use only twelve quantum wells of 10 nm thickness. The first observation of all‐optical bistability with strained InGaAs/GaAs quantum wells is reported, with a contrast ratio of 7:1 and a threshold intensity of 1 kW/cm2. The operating wavelength offers key advantages such as the substrate transparency and compatibility with vertical cavity surface emitting lasers.
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42.65.Pc Optical bistability, multistability, and switching, including local field effects
78.66.Fd III-V semiconductors
42.79.Ta Optical computers, logic elements, interconnects, switches; neural networks

Optical bistable responses based on self‐electro‐optic effect in a nonbiased asymmetric coupled quantum well p‐i‐n photodiode

Yasunori Tokuda and Yuji Abe

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 2492 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.109329 (3 pages) | Cited 4 times

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We demonstrated the optical bistable responses of the self‐electro‐optic effect device without applying any external bias. The function was realized by taking advantage of the significant electric‐field dependence of both intensity and wavelength of an excitonic absorption peak, which is related to a resonance of electron levels in an asymmetric coupled quantum well structure. The successful result suggests that it is possible to create an all‐optical bistable device with nonsegmented planar structure.
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42.65.Pc Optical bistability, multistability, and switching, including local field effects
42.79.Ta Optical computers, logic elements, interconnects, switches; neural networks
78.66.Fd III-V semiconductors

Graded‐index polymer‐based waveguide lens working at visible wavelengths on GaAs substrate for optoelectronic interconnects

Ray T. Chen

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 2495 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.109330 (3 pages) | Cited 4 times

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A polymer‐based graded index (GRIN with n=1.4–1.6) waveguide lens was demonstrated on a semi‐insulating GaAs substrate. The transparent bandwidth of the polymer film (photolime gel) is from ∼280 to ∼2800 nm. Therefore, UV (ultraviolet), visible and near‐IR (infrared) light can be employed as the signal carrier wavelength. In this letter, an off‐axis chirped grating lens working at 632.8 nm with 35 mm focal length, 680/mm chirp rate, and angular field of view of 6° was demonstrated. Measured focal spot size of the main lobe is 5.6 μm which is very close to the theoretical prediction (4.2 μm). The crosslink‐induced index modulation is as high as 0.2. Therefore, an array of chirped phase grating lenses can be multiplexed onto the same holographic emulsion for one‐ and two‐dimensional massive fanout optical interconnects and signal processing.
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42.82.Ds Interconnects, including holographic interconnects
42.82.Et Waveguides, couplers, and arrays

Silicon interstitial absorption during thermal oxidation at 900 °C by extended defects formed via silicon implantation

David J. Roth, Robert Y. S. Huang, James D. Plummer, and Robert W. Dutton

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 2498 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.109331 (3 pages) | Cited 11 times

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Extended defect damage created by high‐dose silicon implants is used to study the interaction between extended defects and silicon interstitials introduced via thermal oxidation. A buried epitaxial layer of boron was used as an interstitial monitor, and a layer of extended defects was formed between the surface and the buried layer via silicon implants. Samples were oxidized at 900 °C in wet O2, and the amount of oxidation‐enhanced diffusion was measured. For a silicon implant of 1×1013 cm−2, the enhancement was very similar in regions that had and had not been implanted. For an implant of 1×1015 cm−2, the enhancement was reduced in regions that had been implanted. The difference is explained by the absorption of the injected interstitials by a layer of extended defects.
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61.80.Jh Ion radiation effects
61.72.Cc Kinetics of defect formation and annealing
61.72.Yx Interaction between different crystal defects; gettering effect
66.30.J- Diffusion of impurities

Thermal imaging using the atomic force microscope

A. Majumdar, J. P. Carrejo, and J. Lai

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 2501 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.109335 (3 pages) | Cited 74 times

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We have developed a new and simple technique for thermal imaging with submicrometer spatial resolution using the atomic force microscope. The method is particularly unique for simultaneously obtaining thermal and topographical images of biased electronic devices and interconnects where there could be different materials and potential variations on a scan surface. Application to a biased metal‐semiconductor field‐effect transistor showed the heating under the gate and a hot spot between the gate and drain where the electric field is known to be the highest. Thermal images of a biased polycrystalline Al‐Cu via structure showed the grain boundaries to be hotter than within the grain. With the development of electronic devices and structures in the submicrometer range, this technique can become very useful as a tool for thermal characterization and property measurement.
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68.37.Ef Scanning tunneling microscopy (including chemistry induced with STM)
68.37.Ps Atomic force microscopy (AFM)
68.37.Rt Magnetic force microscopy (MFM)
68.37.Uv Near-field scanning microscopy and spectroscopy
07.20.Dt Thermometers
85.30.De Semiconductor-device characterization, design, and modeling

Atom probe compositional analysis of Co‐Cr sputtered magnetic thin films

K. Hono, S. S. Babu, Y. Maeda, N. Hasegawa, and T. Sakurai

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 2504 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.109336 (3 pages) | Cited 15 times

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A Co‐22 at. % magnetic thin film, sputter deposited on a heated Cu coated Si substrate, was analyzed in the planar direction of the film by atom probe field ion microscopy (APFIM). The atom probe concentration depth profile convincingly showed that the film contained two phases, one enriched in Cr up to 30–35 at. % and the other enriched in Co up to 95–93 at. %. This result indicates that Co‐22 at. % Cr thin film deposited on a heated substrate consists of ferromagnetic and paramagnetic phases, each less than a few tens of nanometers in size.
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81.15.Cd Deposition by sputtering
75.70.-i Magnetic properties of thin films, surfaces, and interfaces
68.37.Vj Field emission and field-ion microscopy

A 75 GHz silicon metal‐semiconductor‐metal Schottky photodiode

Sotiris Alexandrou, Chia‐Chi Wang, Thomas Y. Hsiang, M. Y. Liu, and S. Y. Chou

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 2507 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.109337 (3 pages) | Cited 19 times

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The ultrafast characteristics of crystalline‐silicon metal‐semiconductor‐metal (MSM) photodiodes with 300 nm finger width and spacing were measured with a subpicosecond electro‐optic sampling system. Electrical responses with full width at half maximum as short as 5.5 and 11 ps, at corresponding 3 dB bandwidths of 75 and 38 GHz, were generated by violet and red photons, respectively. The difference is attributed to the photon penetration depth which is much larger than the diode finger spacing at red, but smaller at violet. Light‐intensity dependence was also examined at different wavelengths, indicating a linear relation and a higher sensitivity in the violet. These results not only demonstrated the fastest silicon photodetector reported to date, but also pinpointed the dominant speed‐limiting factor of silicon MSM photodiodes. A configuration is suggested to improve the speed of these detectors at long wavelengths.
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85.60.Gz Photodetectors (including infrared and CCD detectors)
73.40.Sx Metal-semiconductor-metal structures

n‐p‐(p+‐n+)‐n AlyGa1−yAs‐GaAs‐InxGa1−xAs quantum‐well laser with p+‐n+ GaAs‐InGaAs tunnel contact on n‐GaAs

A. R. Sugg, E. I. Chen, T. A. Richard, S. A. Maranowski, and N. Holonyak

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 2510 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.109338 (3 pages) | Cited 4 times

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Data are presented on the growth, by metalorganic chemical vapor deposition, and fabrication of n‐p (n‐up) AlGaAs‐GaAs‐InGaAs quantum‐well heterostructure lasers using a p+‐n+ GaAs‐InGaAs reverse‐biased tunnel junction to contact the n‐type GaAs substrate. The lasers operate continuously at 300 K with a threshold of ∼37 mA for a 10‐μm‐wide native‐oxide‐defined gain‐guided stripe (cavity length ∼375 μm). Comparison tunnel junctions similar to those used in the diode lasers are also fabricated and exhibit low reverse‐biased series resistances (∼2.2 Ω, area ∼4.5×larger).
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.60.-v Laser optical systems: design and operation

Two classes of recombination behavior as studied by the technique of the electron beam induced current: NiSi2 particles and misfit dislocations in Ni contaminated n‐type silicon

M. Kittler, W. Seifert, and Z. J. Radzimski

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 2513 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.109632 (3 pages) | Cited 10 times

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The recombination activity of well‐defined NiSi2 precipitates and of misfit dislocations in Ni contaminated Si samples has been investigated using the technique of the electron‐beam‐induced current in dependence on sample temperature and beam current. Individual NiSi2 precipitates are found to show a high recombination activity, increasing slightly with temperature and decreasing with increasing beam current. On the other hand, misfit dislocations are nearly inactive at room temperature and increase their activity upon cooling the sample. The experimental findings are discussed in terms of recombination activity controlled by either defect charging or shallow centers.
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61.72.Ff Direct observation of dislocations and other defects (etch pits, decoration, electron microscopy, x-ray topography, etc.)
61.72.uf Ge and Si
72.20.Jv Charge carriers: generation, recombination, lifetime, and trapping

Potential dependent etching of Si(111) surfaces in NH4F solutions studied by scanning tunneling microscopy

R. Houbertz, U. Memmert, and R. J. Behm

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 2516 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.109307 (3 pages) | Cited 15 times

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The initial phases of anodic Si(111) etching in 40% NH4F solution at potentials between −0.97 VAg/AgCl (open circuit potential) and +0.5 VAg/AgCl were investigated by scanning tunneling microscopy. Pores of several hundred angström width and 10–30 Å depth, increasing with more anodic potentials, signal the beginning formation of a porous surface. The observation of atomic steps proves the crystallinity of the new surface and the absence of an amorphous deposit layer under these conditions.
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81.65.-b Surface treatments
68.37.Ef Scanning tunneling microscopy (including chemistry induced with STM)
68.37.Ps Atomic force microscopy (AFM)
68.37.Rt Magnetic force microscopy (MFM)
68.37.Uv Near-field scanning microscopy and spectroscopy
82.45.-h Electrochemistry and electrophoresis

Impurity decoration of defects in float zone and polycrystalline silicon via chemomechanical polishing

Scott A. McHugo and William D. Sawyer

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 2519 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.109308 (3 pages) | Cited 8 times

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The behavior of impurities introduced in single and polycrystalline silicon via chemomechanical polishing was studied extensively. Using the electron beam induced current mode of a scanning electron microscope, chemomechanical polishing of boron‐doped FZ silicon is shown to introduce impurities which decorate and electrically activate swirl defects. Undecorated swirl defects do not behave as carrier recombination sites. Chemomechanical polishing and preferential etching of boron‐doped polycrystalline silicon produced etch pits which increased in concentration with decreasing resistivity, indicating an interaction between the polishing impurity and boron. The impurity is shown to form discrete points of electrical activity homogeneously in a thin surface region of the material as well as increase the electron beam induced current contrast of dislocations and grain boundaries.
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61.72.uf Ge and Si
81.65.-b Surface treatments
61.72.Yx Interaction between different crystal defects; gettering effect
61.72.Ff Direct observation of dislocations and other defects (etch pits, decoration, electron microscopy, x-ray topography, etc.)

Wave function deformation and mobility of a two‐dimensional electron gas in a backgated GaAs‐AlGaAs heterostructure

A. Kurobe, J. E. F. Frost, M. P. Grimshaw, D. A. Ritchie, G. A. C. Jones, and M. Pepper

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 2522 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.109309 (3 pages) | Cited 8 times

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The transport properties of a two‐dimensional electron gas in a GaAs‐AlGaAs heterostructure were studied at low temperatures as a function of both back‐ and frontgate voltages. The mobility increased by a ratio as high as 5 as the backgate voltage was changed from 0 to +1.4 V, and also showed a carrier density dependence steeper than that expected from remote ionized impurity scattering when the carrier density was lower than 2×1011 cm−2. The experimental results were compared to theoretical calculations based on the shape of the wave function.
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73.40.Kp III-V semiconductor-to-semiconductor contacts, p-n junctions, and heterojunctions
73.21.-b Electron states and collective excitations in multilayers, quantum wells, mesoscopic, and nanoscale systems
73.50.Dn Low-field transport and mobility; piezoresistance

Observation of separate electron and hole escape rates in unbiased strained InGaAsP multiple quantum well laser structures

B. W. Takasaki, J. S. Preston, J. D. Evans, J. G. Simmons, and N. Puetz

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 2525 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.109310 (3 pages) | Cited 2 times

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We report on the first time‐resolved photoconductivity measurements in strained InGaAsP multiple quantum well 1.3 μm laser structures. The photoconductive response is characterized by two exponential time constants, a fast time constant of less than 500 ps and a long time constant between 10 and 20 ns. We attribute these to the escape of electrons and holes from the wells, respectively.
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73.40.Kp III-V semiconductor-to-semiconductor contacts, p-n junctions, and heterojunctions
73.50.Gr Charge carriers: generation, recombination, lifetime, trapping, mean free paths
42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes

Detection of two‐dimensional electron gases in undoped heterojunctions with magnetophotoluminescence

F. A. J. M. Driessen, S. M. Olsthoorn, and L. J. Giling

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 2528 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.109311 (2 pages) | Cited 2 times

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We report the observation of a magnetoexciton in undoped GaAs/AlxGa1−xAs heterojunctions by photoluminescence. The exciton originates from photoexcited holes and two‐dimensional electrons, which are confined in the shallow potential at the heterointerface. The observation of this exciton is particularly useful for identification of unintended two‐dimensional electron gases in cases where detection by temperature‐dependent Hall measurements is difficult.
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78.55.Cr III-V semiconductors
78.66.Fd III-V semiconductors

Effect of wire width variation on the conductance of a silicon quantum wire

Y. S. Tang, G. Jin, and C. D. W. Wilkinson

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 2530 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.109286 (3 pages)

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The effect of wire width variation on the conductance of a 1 μm×30 nm silicon quantum wire has been studied. Both resonant tunneling features and conductance fluctuations superimposed on the quantized steps have been observed and explained by the existence of a step‐wise constriction in the wire due to the nonideality in the fabrication process.
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72.80.Ey III-V and II-VI semiconductors
73.40.Sx Metal-semiconductor-metal structures
72.10.Fk Scattering by point defects, dislocations, surfaces, and other imperfections (including Kondo effect)
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