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25 Jan 1993

Volume 62, Issue 4, pp. 325-431

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Large and small signal dynamics of vertical cavity surface emitting lasers

D. Tauber, G. Wang, R. S. Geels, J. E. Bowers, and L. A. Coldren

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 325 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108947 (3 pages) | Cited 41 times

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Continuous wave relative intensity noise (RIN) measurements and pulsed electrical gain switching measurements were performed on vertical cavity surface emitting lasers in order to investigate the high speed potential of these devices. A high resonance frequency–square root of power coefficient of 7.6 GHz/√mW was obtained from the RIN measurements. The gain switched pulses exhibited very fast relaxation oscillations with a maximum observed relaxation oscillation frequency of 71 GHz.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.55.Rz Doped-insulator lasers and other solid state lasers

Spatial subharmonics in photorefractive Bi12SiO20 crystal with a square wave applied field

C. H. Kwak, M. Shamonin, J. Takacs, and L. Solymar

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 328 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108948 (3 pages) | Cited 13 times

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The instability leading to the appearance of subharmonics in the presence of a square wave applied field is investigated both theoretically and experimentally. The threshold conditions are found for a range of parameters and the temporal variation of the subharmonic amplitude is measured. It is shown that a relatively simple theory, based on a set of material equations, gives good agreement with some of the experimental results but other experiments indicate that the materials equations alone cannot describe all the observations.
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42.65.Jx Beam trapping, self-focusing and defocusing; self-phase modulation
42.65.Ky Frequency conversion; harmonic generation, including higher-order harmonic generation

Anomalous temperature dependence of photoluminescence in porous silicon

K. L. Narasimhan, S. Banerjee, A. K. Srivastava, and A. Sardesai

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 331 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108949 (3 pages) | Cited 32 times

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We have studied the temperature dependence of luminescence in porous silicon between 10 and 300 K. We find that above 60 K the luminescence has a temperature dependence opposite in sign from that of the band gap. Using a Gaussian decomposition procedure we have identified three different processes which dominate the luminescence at different temperatures. With a knowledge of the temperature dependence of the relative intensities of the three components we explain the blue shift of the luminescence peak with increasing temperature. We also present arguments to show that the luminescence in porous silicon is due to a complex.
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78.55.Hx Other solid inorganic materials

Concentration and collimation of diffuse linear light sources

N. Davidson and A. A. Friesem

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 334 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108950 (3 pages) | Cited 1 time

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We present an approach for concentration and collimation of a diffuse linear light source to achieve extremely high concentration in the long direction at the expense of the short direction. The approach is based on free‐space optics and involves either arrays of prisms or holographic optical elements that couple between the two spatial directions. The results for a specific arrangement that concentrates a 40 mm by 0.4 mm source, with diffusive angle of about 0.1 rad, into a 1 mm by 1 mm isotropic spot are presented.
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42.72.Bj Visible and ultraviolet sources
42.15.Eq Optical system design

Rare earth doped silica waveguides on Si fabricated by flame hydrolysis deposition and aerosol doping

J. A. Bebbington, G. Barbarossa, J. R. Bonar, and J. S. Aitchison

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 337 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.109645 (3 pages) | Cited 9 times

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High silica waveguides on Si fabricated by flame hydrolysis deposition were doped with rate earth ions using an aerosol doping technique. Rare earth doping levels in the glass were dependent on the nebulized solution strength and the delivery rate of the aerosol to the burner, giving the possibility of selective area doping.
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42.82.Et Waveguides, couplers, and arrays
42.82.Cr Fabrication techniques; lithography, pattern transfer
82.33.Vx Reactions in flames, combustion, and explosions

Growth of strain‐balanced InAsP/InGaP superlattices for 1.06 μm optical modulators

T. H. Chiu, J. E. Cunningham, T. K. Woodward, and T. Sizer

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 340 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108951 (3 pages) | Cited 16 times

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Using a strain‐balanced growth approach, we show that the pseudomorphic InAsP/InGaP multiple quantum well structures, grown by chemical beam epitaxy, have superior material properties for 1.06 μm modulator application when compared to the strained InAsP/InP or the lattice‐matched InGaAsP/InP systems. The broadening in absorption edge due to dislocations in the strained system, or composition fluctuations in the lattice‐matched system as a consequence of growth temperature instability, can be greatly minimized. A strong reduction in the nonradiative recombination centers in the strain‐balanced InAsP/InGaP system has been observed.
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81.15.Kk Vapor phase epitaxy; growth from vapor phase
42.65.Pc Optical bistability, multistability, and switching, including local field effects

Minimal‐data approaches for determining outer‐layer dielectric responses of films from kinetic reflectometric and ellipsometric measurements

D. E. Aspnes

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 343 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108952 (3 pages) | Cited 10 times

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For stratified samples where material is being uniformly deposited or removed at a known rate, the dielectric response ϵo of the outermost few Å is exactly determinable from the value and thickness derivative of the complex reflectance without any knowledge of the underlying structure. For ellipsometric data the equivalent analysis is not exact, but a common‐pseudosubstrate approximation is developed, that in applications to semiconductor crystal growth, is accurate to better than 0.1%.
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07.60.Fs Polarimeters and ellipsometers
07.60.Hv Refractometers and reflectometers
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
81.15.-z Methods of deposition of films and coatings; film growth and epitaxy

Properties of doped and undoped crystals of single domain KTiOAsO4

L. K. Cheng, L.-T. Cheng, J. D. Bierlein, F. C. Zumsteg, and A. A. Ballman

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 346 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108953 (3 pages) | Cited 36 times

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Large single crystals of KTiOAsO4 (KTA) measuring up to 35×31×58 mm3 (along abc) are grown from the pure potassium arsenate self-fluxes and from the tungstate flux using the seeded high-temperature solution growth technique. Small amounts of Fe2O3, Sc2O3, or In2O3 (∼0.2–0.4 wt %) are added to the melt to promote single-domain formation in the flux-grown crystals. We report here the linear optical and nonlinear optical properties of these crystals. We observed an unusually strong optical birefringence increase with Fe2O3 dopant concentration [δ(nz−nx)∼0.017/wt % Fe]. This increase leads to a blue shift in the second-harmonic generation cutoff wavelength of as much as 37 nm for a ∼0.47 wt % Fe-dopant level in KTA.
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42.65.Ky Frequency conversion; harmonic generation, including higher-order harmonic generation
42.70.Nq Other nonlinear optical materials; photorefractive and semiconductor materials
81.10.-h Methods of crystal growth; physics and chemistry of crystal growth, crystal morphology, and orientation
81.40.Tv Optical and dielectric properties related to treatment conditions

Difference Raman spectra of PbTiO3 thin films grown by metalorganic chemical vapor deposition

Z. C. Feng, B. S. Kwak, A. Erbil, and L. A. Boatner

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 349 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108954 (3 pages) | Cited 19 times

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The technique of Raman scattering has been used to investigate the properties of ferroelectric PbTiO3 thin films grown on both single‐crystal KTaO3 and fused quartz substrates by means of metalorganic chemical vapor deposition. The ‘‘difference Raman’’ technique was employed in which substrate contributions were subtracted in order to obtain Raman spectra for the PbTiO3 films. A comparison of the Raman spectra taken at 300 and 80 K for PbTiO3 and KTaO3 reveals two different types of temperature behavior and these effects are accounted for by the soft‐mode theory.
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77.80.-e Ferroelectricity and antiferroelectricity
78.30.Hv Other nonmetallic inorganics
81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)

Piezoelectric constant of InP

K. Rottner, R. Helbig, and G. Müller

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 352 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.109619 (2 pages) | Cited 1 time

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The piezoelectric modulus d14 of InP was not determined experimentally up to now. By doping InP with Fe now high compensated bulk material is available by liquid‐encapsulated Czochralski crystals with a conductivity lower than 10−8 (Ω cm)−1. Excitation of vibration modes leads to a set of closely spaced resonance lines. These data were used to calculate a set of parameters for an electrical equivalent circuit with which the impedance behavior can be described successfully. From this the piezoelectric modulus of InP was derived to be −1.8 pC/N at room temperature. The sign of the constant was determined by qualitative static measurements of the piezovoltage by compressing the crystal.
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77.65.Bn Piezoelectric and electrostrictive constants

Morphology of flattened diamond crystals synthesized by the oxy‐acetylene flame method

Keiji Hirabayashi, Takeshi Kimura, and Yoichi Hirose

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 354 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108955 (3 pages) | Cited 7 times

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Flattened diamond crystals were synthesized by the oxy‐acetyle flame method under high O2/C2H2 gas ratio conditions (≥0.95). The morphology of the flattened diamond crystals is characterized as follows: the ratio of the size of the top face and the height is 5:1 or more and all the faces are {111} faces. The twin boundaries are formed many times parallel to the top face. Scanning electron microscopy observations indicate that the flattened diamond crystals exhibit a good crystalline morphology. The motive force of lateral growth is caused by a re‐entrant corner effect which results from the formation of twin boundaries.
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81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology

Reactively sputtered titanium nitride films for submicron contact barrier metallization

G. A. Dixit, C. C. Wei, F. T. Liou, and H. Zhang

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 357 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.109644 (3 pages) | Cited 6 times

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Titanium nitride (TiN) is widely used as a barrier metal for submicron metallization because of its superior thermal stability. Various methods of forming TiN films have been explored. Oxygen passivation of the grain boundaries of the TiN and stoichiometry of the TiN are reported to be the dominant factors in achieving good barrier properties. We report on the structure property correlation of the TiN barrier metal films.
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81.15.Cd Deposition by sputtering
85.40.Ls Metallization, contacts, interconnects; device isolation
73.61.Ng Insulators
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology

Thermodynamic interpretation of quaternary (InGaAsP) layer uniformity grown by low‐pressure metalorganic vapor phase epitaxy

A. S. Jordan, A. Robertson, and J. L. Zilko

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 360 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108956 (3 pages) | Cited 2 times

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According to a recent study, the compositional nonuniformity for group V sites of quaternary (Q) In0.68Ga0.32As0.7P0.3 layers (λ=1.35 μm) grown by low‐pressure metalorganic vapor phase epitaxy (LP‐MOVPE) on 50 mm diam InP wafers was reduced from 3% to 1% when tertiary butyl phosphine (TBP)+AsH3 instead of PH3+AsH3 or TBP+tertiary butyl arsine (TBAs) were employed. In this letter we offer a thermodynamic interpretation of these observations. Under LP‐MOVPE conditions at a total pressure of 0.08 atm for fully decomposed group V precursors diluted with H2, we show that while the dominant species are the tetramers, the concentration of the dimers is significant and becomes more prominent with rising temperature (T). Examining the [As/P] ratio in the gas phase as a function of reciprocal T, we demonstrate that in the MOVPE range (900–950 K) the slope of these curves changes from steep to moderate and then nearly flat for the sources AsH3+PH3, TBAs+TBP, and AsH3+TBP, respectively. The insensitivity of the [As/P] ratio to the ∼30 K gradient over the susceptor when combining AsH3 and TBP suggests a very effective method to assure compositional uniformity in Q layers prepared by LP‐MOVPE. Uniformity results for atmospheric pressure MOVPE employing AsH3 and PH3 are also consistent with the thermodynamic argument.
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81.15.Kk Vapor phase epitaxy; growth from vapor phase
68.55.Nq Composition and phase identification
82.60.-s Chemical thermodynamics

Low energy ion bombardment induced roughening and smoothing of SiO2 surfaces

E. Chason and T. M. Mayer

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 363 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108957 (3 pages) | Cited 23 times

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Surface roughening and smoothing of SiO2 by low energy ion bombardment were investigated using in situ energy dispersive x‐ray reflectivity. Bombardment of nominally smooth surfaces (initial roughness approx. 0.4 nm) by 1 keV Xe increases the surface roughness linearly with fluence. Bombardment of initially rough surfaces (roughness approx. 1 nm) by 0.2–1 keV H results in an exponential decrease in roughness with fluence at a rate that increases with energy. The smoothing rate has a different energy dependence than the etching rate, ruling out a simple relation between material removal and surface morphology. A H ion induced relaxation mechanism is suggested for the smoothing behavior.
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61.80.Jh Ion radiation effects
79.20.Rf Atomic, molecular, and ion beam impact and interactions with surfaces
81.65.-b Surface treatments

Different types of pore structure in porous silicon

V. P. Parkhutik, J. M. Albella, J. M. Martinez‐Duart, J. M. Gómez‐Rodríguez, A. M. Baró, and V. I. Shershulsky

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 366 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108958 (3 pages) | Cited 15 times

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A morphology of pores formed in silicon by its anodic polarization in a hydrofluoric acid has been studied using scanning tunneling microscopy (STM). The results obtained show that the pore structure, as yielded from the STM measurements, may be ordered or fibrouslike depending on the anodic current applied to obtain the porous silicon layers. This dependence is interpreted in terms of the theoretical model assuming the pore growth through a virtual passive layer formation at the pore bottoms and its dissolution.  
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81.05.Rm Porous materials; granular materials
81.65.-b Surface treatments
82.45.-h Electrochemistry and electrophoresis

In situ noble metal YBa2Cu3O7 thin‐film contacts

J. W. Ekin, S. E. Russek, C. C. Clickner, and B. Jeanneret

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 369 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108959 (3 pages) | Cited 25 times

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Thin‐film contacts to YBa2Cu3O7 have been fabricated by an in situ noble‐metal process and patterned down to 2×2 μm2; at this small size, the contacts carry transport current over 106 A/cm2 while maintaining a specific contact resistivity ρc in the 10−8 to 10−9 Ω cm2 range. No oxygen annealing was used in the processing, thus avoiding the problem of silver or gold agglomeration, as well as preserving a sharp interface for Josephson‐device applications. ρc was measured to increase only ∼25% as temperature was increased from 4 to 90 K. The measurements were carried out on a series of film morphologies using both superconductor‐normal metal and superconductor‐normal metal‐superconductor test structures; a carefully designed test pattern was used to correct for spreading conduction in the noble‐metal contact layer. The contacts were ohmic with voltage‐current characteristics that were linear over more than four orders of magnitude.
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74.45.+c Proximity effects; Andreev reflection; SN and SNS junctions
85.25.-j Superconducting devices
85.40.Hp Lithography, masks and pattern transfer
74.72.-h Cuprate superconductors

New photodefinable glass etch masks for entirely dry photolithography: Plasma deposited organosilicon hydride polymers

Timothy W. Weidman and Ajey M. Joshi

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 372 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108960 (3 pages) | Cited 8 times

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The low energy plasma induced dehydrogenative polymerization of various monosubstituted silanes (RSiH3) is shown to provide photosensitive films characterized as organosilicon hydride network materials with extensive Si—Si bonding. Plasma deposited films may be photo‐oxidatively patterned with mid‐deep ultraviolet light producing glasslike Si–O–Si crosslinked materials in exposed areas. Patterns can be developed by chlorine reactive ion etching with up to 5:1 selectivity, and transferred into underlying organic layers with ≳50:1 selectivity and sub‐half‐micron resolution. This provides a versatile, completely dry photolithographic process useful with current exposure and etching tools and is well‐suited for integration into cluster tool technologies.  
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81.65.-b Surface treatments
82.50.-m Photochemistry
81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)

Segregation and defect termination of fluorine at SiO2/Si interfaces

Y. Ono, M. Tabe, and Y. Sakakibara

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 375 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108961 (3 pages) | Cited 8 times

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Segregation of fluorine in a SiO2/Si structure has been examined with respect to depth profile and paramagnetic defects at the SiO2/Si interface. The fluorine distribution was found to be restricted to a narrow (less than 35 Å) interface region on the oxide side. Furthermore, a greater amount of fluorine segregation was observed for (111) than for (100) interfaces. These observations suggest that fluorine segregation is caused by intrinsic defects in the interface region and that fluorine atoms terminate the defects. In fact, electron spin resonance measurements provide direct confirmation that fluorine atoms terminate the trivalent Si dangling bonds at the interface.
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61.72.up Other materials
73.40.Qv Metal-insulator-semiconductor structures (including semiconductor-to-insulator)
76.30.Mi Color centers and other defects

Quantum well infrared photodetection induced by interband pumping

V. Berger, E. Rosencher, N. Vodjdani, and E. Costard

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 378 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108962 (3 pages) | Cited 11 times

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We present a new type of quantum well infrared photodetector. The structure is not doped and the electrons necessary for the photodetection are optically injected by interband absorption. The functioning of the photodetector is then completely controlled by the near‐infrared pump beam. We have used coupled quantum wells in order to increase the lifetime of the carriers and hence increase the photoinduced electron density. The behavior of the device versus infrared wavelength, pump wavelength, and applied bias is studied.  
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78.30.Fs III-V and II-VI semiconductors
78.66.Fd III-V semiconductors
85.60.Gz Photodetectors (including infrared and CCD detectors)

Ultraviolet and violet light‐emitting GaN diodes grown by low‐pressure metalorganic chemical vapor deposition

Barbara Goldenberg, J. David Zook, and Robert J. Ulmer

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 381 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108963 (3 pages) | Cited 80 times

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Both metal‐insulator‐semiconductor and p‐n junction electroluminescence have been observed in thin‐film, metalorganic chemical vapor deposition‐grown GaN diodes thermally annealed in N2. UV radiation, peaking near 380 nm, is emitted when electrons are injected from the undoped, n‐type material into the Mg‐doped, p‐type GaN. Violet light, peaking near 430 nm, is obtained by injecting electrons into p‐type material from either n‐type material or non‐ohmic metal contacts. The present results support and extend earlier interpretations of the nature of the recombination centers in GaN.
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78.60.Fi Electroluminescence
73.40.Kp III-V semiconductor-to-semiconductor contacts, p-n junctions, and heterojunctions
85.60.Jb Light-emitting devices

Contact resistance measurements on p‐type 6H‐SiC

J. Crofton, P. A. Barnes, J. R. Williams, and J. A. Edmond

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 384 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108964 (3 pages) | Cited 58 times

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Specific contact resistance measurements are reported for Al‐Ti ohmic contacts to epitaxial p‐type 6H‐SiC as a function of epitaxial doping. The circular transmission line method was used to measure the specific contact resistance including the sheet resistance of the epitaxial layer and the modified sheet resistance under the contact. Epitaxial layers with Al doping between 5.5×1015 and 2×1019 cm−3 yielded specific contact resistances between 2.9×10−2 and 1.5×10−5 Ω cm2. A good theoretical fit to the contact resistance data was obtained by assuming the metal‐6H‐SiC barrier height to equal 0.37 eV.
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73.40.Cg Contact resistance, contact potential
73.40.Gk Tunneling
73.40.Ns Metal-nonmetal contacts

Transport in submicrometer buried mesotaxial cobalt silicide wires

Neil M. Zimmerman, J. Alex Liddle, Alice E. White, and Ken T. Short

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 387 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108965 (3 pages) | Cited 12 times

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We describe the formation of narrow (down to 130 nm) buried CoSi2 wires by implantation of Co ions through an oxide mask into a Si wafer followed by annealing. Fabrication of free‐standing wires is also demonstrated. The temperature dependence of the four‐terminal resistance from 4 to 600 K shows that these wires are good metals, very similar to wider layers. Measurements at high current density and temperature suggest that the wires may be robust with respect to electromigration damage.
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81.07.-b Nanoscale materials and structures: fabrication and characterization
81.16.-c Methods of micro- and nanofabrication and processing
85.35.-p Nanoelectronic devices
73.61.At Metal and metallic alloys

Capacitive detection of subband structure in the electron gas in a wide parabolic GaAs/AlxGa1−xAs quantum well

A. J. Rimberg, Scott Yang, Jed Dempsey, J. H. Baskey, R. M. Westervelt, M. Sundaram, and A. C. Gossard

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 390 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108966 (3 pages) | Cited 6 times

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Profiles of the capacitance C(Vg) between a front gate and the electron gas in a wide parabolic well and its derivative dC/dVg are used to study the subband structure and uniformity of the electron gas layer. Subband depopulation events are detected as peaks in the derivative profile dC/dVg as the width of the electron gas is reduced by application of the gate voltage Vg. To separate depopulation events from nonuniformities in electron density, derivative profiles are repeated for increasing in‐plane magnetic fields: depopulation peaks move to smaller gate voltages and disappear at characteristic fields, while nonuniformities remain fixed and are accentuated in strong fields.
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73.21.-b Electron states and collective excitations in multilayers, quantum wells, mesoscopic, and nanoscale systems
72.20.My Galvanomagnetic and other magnetotransport effects
73.40.Kp III-V semiconductor-to-semiconductor contacts, p-n junctions, and heterojunctions

Al‐O complex formation in ion implanted Czochralski and floating‐zone Si substrates

A. La Ferla, L. Torrisi, G. Galvagno, E. Rimini, G. Ciavola, A. Carnera, and A. Gasparotto

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 393 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108967 (3 pages) | Cited 7 times

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Aluminum ions at 100 MeV were implanted into floating‐zone (FZ) and Czochralski (CZ) grown Si substrates. At this energy the influence of the surface on the subsequent thermal treatment is negligible. In FZ samples the electrical active dose, as measured by spreading resistance profilometry, is independent of the annealing time at 1200 °C. In the CZ samples instead it considerably decreases with time. Secondary ion mass spectrometry analysis in CZ samples have revealed the presence of a multipeak structure around the projected range region for both Al and O signals. In FZ the structure is just detectable. The results imply that the Al‐O complex formation is enhanced by the presence of oxygen but that it is catalyzed by the damage created during the implant. The carrier profiles coincide in both CZ and FZ diffused substrates by predeposition of Al from a solid source, i.e., in damage‐free samples.  
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61.72.uf Ge and Si
61.80.Jh Ion radiation effects
66.30.J- Diffusion of impurities

Auger recombination in strained and unstrained InGaAs/InGaAsP multiple quantum‐well lasers

G. Fuchs, C. Schiedel, A. Hangleiter, V. Härle, and F. Scholz

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 396 (1993); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.108941 (3 pages) | Cited 42 times

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We report the determination of the Auger recombination coefficient in strained and unstrained InGaAs/InGaAsP/InP separate‐confinement multiple quantum‐well laser structures. For a temperature of 300 K and a well width of 100 Å, we find an Auger coefficient of C=1.0×10−28 cm6 s−1, independent of strain and only weakly dependent on temperature. These properties of the Auger coefficient indicate the dominance of phonon‐assisted Auger recombination. Our model calculations based on a six‐band kp theory explain the experimentally found dependency on temperature and strain. The consequences on laser performance are discussed.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
73.40.Kp III-V semiconductor-to-semiconductor contacts, p-n junctions, and heterojunctions
73.50.Gr Charge carriers: generation, recombination, lifetime, trapping, mean free paths
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