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28 Mar 1994

Volume 64, Issue 13, pp. 1601-1743

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Experimental study of a waveguide free‐electron laser using the coherent synchrotron radiation emitted from electron bunches

Makoto Asakawa, Naoki Sakamoto, Naoki Inoue, Tatsuya Yamamoto, Kunioki Mima, Sadao Nakai, Jizhong Chen, Masayuki Fujita, Kazuo Imasaki, Chiyoe Yamanaka, Tatsuo Agari, Takashi Asakuma, Nobuhisa Ohigashi, and Yoshiaki Tsunawaki

Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 1601 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.111850 (3 pages) | Cited 3 times

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We have observed the oscillation of a waveguide mode free‐electron laser using the coherent synchrotron radiation emitted from electron bunches. The oscillation was observed at 2.73 mm with a linewidth of 0.4%. This spectral selection was attributed to the dispersion of the radiation in the waveguide. We found that the oscillating radiation had to have the same group velocity as the velocity of the electrons passing through the wiggler field.
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41.60.Cr Free-electron lasers
41.60.Ap Synchrotron radiation

Electrochromism of sputtered fluorinated titanium oxide thin films

A. Gutarra, A. Azens, B. Stjerna, and C. G. Granqvist

Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 1604 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.111851 (3 pages) | Cited 23 times

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Titanium‐oxide‐based films were prepared by reactive dc magnetron sputtering in Ar+O2+CF4. Pronounced electrochromism was found in LiClO4+propylene carbonate. The maximum coloration efficiency was 37 cm2/C at a wavelength of ∼0.7 μm. Polaron hopping is believed to cause the absorption. Coloration/bleaching was performed for up to 2×104 cycles without apparent degradation.
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78.66.Bz Metals and metallic alloys
81.15.Cd Deposition by sputtering

Improved characteristics of a Cherenkov laser loaded with a Kerr‐like medium

T. Shiozawa, T. Sato, and K. Horinouchi

Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 1607 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.111852 (3 pages) | Cited 9 times

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The amplification characteristics of a Cherenkov laser loaded with a Kerr‐like medium are investigated on the basis of the fluid model for an electron beam. The numerical simulation with the aid of the finite element method shows that the amplification characteristics are greatly improved by the proper choice of the nonlinear parameter for a Kerr‐like medium. The enhanced characteristics are due to the improved velocity matching between the electron beam and the electromagnetic wave, and to the self‐focusing effect of a Kerr‐like medium.
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41.60.Bq Cherenkov radiation
41.60.Cr Free-electron lasers

Inherent bandwidth limits in semiconductor lasers due to distributed microwave effects

Daniel A. Tauber, Ralph Spickermann, Radhakrishnan Nagarajan, Thomas Reynolds, Archie L. Holmes, and John E. Bowers

Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 1610 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.111853 (3 pages) | Cited 10 times

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This letter studies the inherent bandwidth limits in high speed semiconductor lasers caused by microwave signal propagation along the device. We show experimentally and theoretically that microwave propagation at high frequency is dominated by loss and slow wave effects. The primary conclusions from this study are (1) the standard treatment of a diode laser as a lumped electrical element is invalid above 25 GHz for device lengths on the order of 300 μm and (2) the frequency dependence of the microwave loss results in rolloff in the modulation response at high frequency. This roll off results in bandwidth degradation relative to the simplistic lumped element case and leads to new length and electrode considerations in the design of high speed lasers.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes

Jitter improvement in mark edge recording for phase change optical disks with optical phase encoding

Tatsunori Ide and Mitsuya Okada

Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 1613 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.111854 (2 pages) | Cited 3 times

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We have developed a novel absorptivity control method for phase change optical disks for improving overwriting jitter in mark edge recording. In order to control absorptivity more easily, we have designed a disk with a small difference in reflectivity between the amorphous and the crystalline states, and with a large optical phase difference between the reflected light from those two states, which produces a high carrier to noise ratio. We have obtained remarkably reduced overwriting jitter, down to 2.47 ns from 5.69 ns for the leading edge, and this has meant greatly increased applicability of mark edge recording to phase change optical disks.
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42.79.Vb Optical storage systems, optical disks
78.20.Ci Optical constants (including refractive index, complex dielectric constant, absorption, reflection and transmission coefficients, emissivity)
78.66.Li Other semiconductors

Electron paramagnetic resonance study of a native acceptor in as‐grown ZnGeP2

M. H. Rakowsky, W. K. Kuhn, W. J. Lauderdale, L. E. Halliburton, G. J. Edwards, M. P. Scripsick, P. G. Schunemann, T. M. Pollak, M. C. Ohmer, and F. K. Hopkins

Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 1615 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.111855 (3 pages) | Cited 29 times

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Electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) has been used to investigate an acceptor in as‐grown single crystals of ZnGeP2. The spectra are characterized by equally spaced triplets with 1:2:1 intensity ratios representing hyperfine interactions (varying from 35 to 55 G in magnitude) with two equivalent phosphorous nuclei. Their angular dependence shows that there are four crystallographically equivalent orientations of the defect. The principal values of the g matrix are 2.002, 2.021, and 2.074 and the corresponding principal axes, at one of the four sites, are the [011], [100], and [011] directions, respectively. Two possible models are suggested for this acceptor: Either a zinc vacancy (VZn) or a zinc ion on a germanium site (ZnGe). It also is suggested that the acceptor responsible for the EPR signal is the same acceptor, namely AL1, that gives rise to a dominant near‐infrared absorption band.
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76.30.Mi Color centers and other defects
61.72.Hh Indirect evidence of dislocations and other defects (resistivity, slip, creep, strains, internal friction, EPR, NMR, etc.)
78.30.-j Infrared and Raman spectra
78.40.Fy Semiconductors

Micrometer scale visualization of thermal waves by photoreflectance microscopy

L. Pottier

Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 1618 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.111856 (2 pages) | Cited 56 times

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We propose a novel approach of photoreflectance microscopy that provides a direct visualization of the phase contour lines of the thermal wave. The method is applicable to (possibly heterogeneous) samples of mediocre polish. In a locally homogeneous region it yields the local thermal diffusivity.
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07.20.-n Thermal instruments and apparatus
07.60.-j Optical instruments and equipment

Acoustic phase conjugation in highly nonlinear PZT piezoelectric ceramics

M. Ohno and K. Takagi

Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 1620 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.111857 (3 pages) | Cited 2 times

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Acoustic phase conjugate waves at 10 MHz were generated with PZT piezoelectric ceramics as highly nonlinear media. Phase conjugate power reflectivity was 10−3, which was 102 times higher than the conventional values with LiNbO3.
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43.25.Dc Nonlinear acoustics of solids
77.65.-j Piezoelectricity and electromechanical effects
77.84.Ek Niobates and tantalates
77.84.Cg PZT ceramics and other titanates

Electron acceleration resonant with sheath motion in a low‐pressure radio frequency discharge

Yoshihiro Okuno, Yasunori Ohtsu, and Hiroharu Fujita

Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 1623 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.111858 (3 pages) | Cited 5 times

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A new electron acceleration method in low‐pressure radio‐frequency (rf) discharges, leading to high density plasmas, is proposed. Electrons are resonantly accelerated by multiple interactions with a moving rf sheath under a specific magnetic flux density which satisfies the condition that twice the electron cyclotron frequency is equal to the rf driving frequency. Experimental evidence is presented. This technique might be useful for the generation of low‐pressure high density rf plasmas.
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52.50.Gj Plasma heating by particle beams

Electron collision cross sections of boron trichloride

Rajesh Nagpal and Alan Garscadden

Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 1626 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.111859 (3 pages) | Cited 10 times

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Three vibrational and two dissociation cross sections of BCl3 in the range 0–30 eV have been unfolded from recent electron drift velocity data in BCl3/Ar and BCl3/He mixtures.
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34.80.Gs Molecular excitation and ionization

Fluid dynamics and dust growth in plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition

Peter Haaland, Sokol Ibrani, and Hao Jiang

Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 1629 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.111860 (3 pages) | Cited 11 times

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A paradox arises with the observation of large dust particles in a low‐pressure plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition reactor. Neutral drag forces in an axisymmetric flowing afterglow reactor permit micrometer sized dust grains to form by trapping them for long times in regions with high concentrations of film precursors. A summary of the relevant mechanical and electrostatic forces on dust grains shows that collisions with neutral gas reconcile the growth rate, residence times, and relatively large diameters of the observed dust particles.
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81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)
52.25.Vy Impurities in plasmas
52.40.-w Plasma interactions (nonlaser)

Materials characterization with the acoustic microscope

S. Hirsekorn and S. Pangraz

Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 1632 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.111836 (3 pages) | Cited 6 times

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The material signature of the acoustic microscope in reflection is calculated taking into account exactly aberration and phase shifts caused by different sound path lengths. The results allow to evaluate elastic material properties from the distance between an interference maximum and the maximum from specular reflection of measured V(z) curves. This is necessary if rigid materials such as ceramics are investigated because in these cases high frequency acoustic microscopes yield V(z) curves with only one maximum besides that from specular reflection.
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43.20.-f General linear acoustics
43.35.Sx Acoustooptical effects, optoacoustics, acoustical visualization, acoustical microscopy, and acoustical holography
43.58.Ls Acoustical lenses and microscopes
62.20.-x Mechanical properties of solids

Diffraction limited dry etching of GaAs at λ=130 nm

B. Li, I. Twesten, H.‐P. Krause, and N. Schwenter

Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 1635 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.111837 (3 pages) | Cited 12 times

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The promising recently reported high efficiency in dry etching of GaAs with vacuum ultraviolet radiation around 130 nm could be accompanied by a deterioration of resolution due to the involved amplification processes. It is shown that this is not the case and that the spatial resolution can be exploited up to the diffraction limit.
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81.65.-b Surface treatments
82.50.-m Photochemistry
85.40.Hp Lithography, masks and pattern transfer
82.65.+r Surface and interface chemistry; heterogeneous catalysis at surfaces

Nucleation of boron nitride on cubic boron nitride microcrystallites using chemical vapor deposition

Hidetoshi Saitoh, Takeshi Hirose, Tomoo Ohtsuka, and Yukio Ichinose

Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 1638 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.111816 (3 pages) | Cited 4 times

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BN containing both cubic and turbostratic phases were synthesized using a chemical vapor deposition apparatus having a tungsten hot filament and a rf induction coil. The films deposited on the Si substrate demonstrated infrared absorption peaks at 800, 1080, and 1380 cm−1, suggesting that the deposited films contained both cubic and turbostratic BN. Transmission electron microscopy revealed that the BN films included clusters having 200–300 nm in size. In addition, it also appeared that these clusters were composed of crystalline cubic BN. To investigate the nucleation of BN on seed crystallites, cubic BN microcrystals were scattered on the Si single crystal wafer. On these crystallites, only submicron clusters were seen. These displayed broad Raman peaks at ∼1050 and ∼1300 cm−1, which are attributable to those from cubic BN. Thus, we suggest that the nano‐ crystalline cubic BN grew on cubic BN seeds possibly having preferential nucleation.  
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81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)
81.15.-z Methods of deposition of films and coatings; film growth and epitaxy
68.55.Nq Composition and phase identification

Diffusion length of Ga adatoms on GaAs (111) surface in the √19 ×√19 reconstruction growth regime

K. Yang, L. J. Schowalter, and T. Thundat

Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 1641 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.111817 (3 pages) | Cited 1 time

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Faceted surface morphologies of homoepitaxial films grown on exactly (111)‐oriented GaAs substrates in the √19 ×√19 regime are studied with an atomic force microscope. The facets are composed of three vicinal surfaces tilted about 2° toward [211], [121], and [112] directions, respectively. The diffusion length at the growth condition is estimated from the surface morphologies and found to be at least hundreds of nanometers. It is comparable to the diffusion length on the (100) surface grown under the same conditions. Therefore, the facet formation on GaAs (111) film is unlikely caused by slower surface mobility.
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68.35.B- Structure of clean surfaces (and surface reconstruction)
68.35.Fx Diffusion; interface formation
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
81.15.Hi Molecular, atomic, ion, and chemical beam epitaxy

(Ba+Sr)/Ti ratio dependence of the dielectric properties for (Ba0.5Sr0.5)TiO3 thin films prepared by ion beam sputtering

Shintaro Yamamichi, Hisato Yabuta, Toshiyuki Sakuma, and Yoichi Miyasaka

Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 1644 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.111818 (3 pages) | Cited 68 times

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(Ba0.5Sr0.5)TiO3 thin films were prepared by ion beam sputtering from powder targets with (Ba+Sr)/Ti ratios ranging from 0.80 to 1.50. All of the perovskite (Ba,Sr)TiO3 films were single phase except for the film with a (Ba+Sr)/Ti ratio of 1.41. The dielectric constant values notably depended on the (Ba+Sr)/Ti ratio for films thicker than 70 nm. The highest dielectric constant of 580 was achieved for the 5% (Ba+Sr) rich film. This (Ba+Sr)/Ti ratio dependence was diminished by the thickness dependence for thinner films. The grain sizes for the 9% (Ba+Sr) rich film and for the 6% (Ba+Sr) poor film ranged from 70 to 100 nm and from 30 to 60 nm, respectively. This grain size difference could explain why slightly A‐site rich (Ba,Sr)TiO3 films have a larger dielectric constant than A‐site poor films.
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77.55.-g Dielectric thin films

Growth of SiC using hexamethyldisilane in a hydrogen‐poor ambient

N. Nordell, S. Nishino, J.‐W. Yang, C. Jacob, and P. Pirouz

Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 1647 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.111819 (3 pages) | Cited 8 times

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Growth of cubic SiC has been carried out on Si(111), Si(100), and SiC(0001) substrates using chemical vapor deposition at atmospheric pressure. Hexamethyldisilane (HMDS) was used as the only precursor and pure Ar or a nonflammable mixture of Ar and H2 was used as the carrier gas. The crystallinity was characterized by x‐ray diffraction, reflection high energy electron diffraction (RHEED), and transmission electron microscopy. It was found that polycrystalline layers were obtained at low growth temperatures and with pure Ar as the carrier gas, while the crystallinity improved at temperatures above 1300 °C and when H2 was added. Under optimum growth conditions most of the grains are oriented with parallel epitaxy or with twinned epitaxy with respect to an (111) substrate. A Si/SiC heterodiode was also grown and it shows a breakdown voltage of more than 100 V.
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81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)
61.05.jh Low-energy electron diffraction (LEED) and reflection high-energy electron diffraction (RHEED)
73.61.Le Other inorganic semiconductors

Crystal structure and magnetic properties of LaCo13−xSix compounds

G. H. Rao, J. K. Liang, Y. L. Zhang, X. R. Cheng, and W. H. Tang

Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 1650 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.111820 (3 pages) | Cited 27 times

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Tetragonal LaCo13−xSix compounds have been obtained by annealing cubic LaCo13−xSix compounds. The space group for the tetragonal structure is I4/mcm. Atomic ordering occurs in the tetragonal LaCo13−xSix compounds, i.e., Si atoms show a strong preference for occupying a specific crystallographic position. The tetragonal LaCo13−xSix compounds are ferromagnetic with Curie temperatures higher than 900 K. The magnetic moment per Co atom in the tetragonal LaCo13−xSix compounds decreases with Si content, which can be explained by the rigid‐band model. The tetragonal LaCo13−xSix compounds are expected to be promising candidates for permanent magnets purpose.
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75.50.Cc Other ferromagnetic metals and alloys
61.66.Dk Alloys

Nanoindentation hardness measurements using atomic force microscopy

Bharat Bhushan and Vilas N. Koinkar

Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 1653 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.111949 (3 pages) | Cited 81 times

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An atomic force microscope (AFM), with a specially prepared diamond tip, has been modified to measure indentation hardness with an indentation depth as low as 1 nm. This indentation depth is much smaller than the depth of more than 20 nm that have been reported to date. The AFM indentation technique allows the hardness measurements of surface monolayers and ultrathin films in multilayered structures at very shallow depths and low loads. The nanoindentation hardness of single crystal silicon is measured using this technique. A subtraction technique is also described which allows the actual hardness measurements of rough surfaces such as magnetic thin film rigid disks.
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46.55.+d Tribology and mechanical contacts
68.37.Ef Scanning tunneling microscopy (including chemistry induced with STM)
68.37.Ps Atomic force microscopy (AFM)
68.37.Rt Magnetic force microscopy (MFM)
68.37.Uv Near-field scanning microscopy and spectroscopy
81.70.-q Methods of materials testing and analysis

A new approach for synthesizing Ge quantum crystallites embedded in a‐SiNx films

X.‐X. Qu, K.‐J. Chen, X.‐F. Huang, Z.‐F. Li, and D. Feng

Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 1656 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.111821 (3 pages) | Cited 5 times

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In this letter, we present a new approach for synthesizing Ge quantum crystallites embedded in a‐SiNx films. On the basis of preferential chemical bonding formation of Si‐N and Ge‐Ge, thin films with Ge clusters embedded in a‐SiNx matrix have been prepared by the plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition method with reactant gases of SiH4, GeH4 and NH3 mixed in hydrogen plasma at substrate temperature of 250 °C. Then the as‐deposited films were annealed at 800 °C for 30 min in the vacuum for the crystallization of Ge clusters and the growth of nanometer‐sized Ge quantum crystallites. These samples were characterized by infrared absorption spectra, transmission electron microscopy, x‐ray diffraction, and Raman scattering spectra. The average size of Ge crystallites was found to be about 200 Å. By choosing conditions of the deposition and thermal‐annealing treatment, the size of Ge quantum crystallites can be prepared in a controlled manner.
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81.15.-z Methods of deposition of films and coatings; film growth and epitaxy
81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)
81.40.Ef Cold working, work hardening; annealing, post-deformation annealing, quenching, tempering recovery, and crystallization

New microfabrication technique by synchrotron radiation‐excited etching: Use of noncontact mask on a submicrometer scale

Shingo Terakado, Takashi Goto, Masayoshi Ogura, Kazuhiro Kaneda, Osamu Kitamura, Shigeo Suzuki, and Kenichiro Tanaka

Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 1659 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.111822 (3 pages) | Cited 9 times

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Synchrotron radiation (SR)‐excited etching of Si using a noncontact mask on a submicrometer scale has been investigated. The blank pattern of the noncontact mask was replicated on the etched surface and highly area‐selective etching was realized at the size of ∼0.4 μm. The spatial photointensity distribution of SR on the sample determined the depth profile of the etched part of the sample.
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81.65.-b Surface treatments
85.40.Hp Lithography, masks and pattern transfer
82.50.-m Photochemistry

Hydrodynamic approach to noise spectra in unipolar semiconductor structures

V. Gruzinskis, E. Starikov, P. Shiktorov, L. Reggiani, and L. Varani

Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 1662 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.111823 (3 pages) | Cited 6 times

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By using a closed hydrodynamic approach coupled with the field‐impedance method we evaluate the spectra of the small‐signal impedance (admittance) and of the voltage (current) density of submillimeter n+nn+ diode generators. The calculations, which are performed for the case of InP with applied fields near the onset of self‐oscillations, indicate the presence of a sharp peak of the current spectral density at the generation frequency.
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85.60.Jb Light-emitting devices
78.66.Fd III-V semiconductors
78.55.Cr III-V semiconductors

Photoluminescence of InAs/AlSb single quantum wells

F. Fuchs, J. Schmitz, H. Obloh, J. D. Ralston, and P. Koidl

Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 1665 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.111824 (3 pages) | Cited 16 times

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A photoluminescence study of InAs/AlSb single quantum well structures with a width varying between 20 and 5 nm is presented. Using Fourier‐transform spectroscopy, the spatially indirect radiative recombination is observed. Excitation of the photoluminescence at 1.32 μm instead of excitation in the visible leads to broadening and blueshifting of the spectra. This behavior is explained by a photoinduced increase of the electron concentration. The optically induced blueshift of the low energy onset of the spectra is attributed to screening of an acceptor level in the AlSb barrier near the InAs/AlSb interface, located about 80 meV above the AlSb valence band maximum. The blueshift of the high energy of the luminescence spectra is limited to a transition energy of 420 meV, providing evidence for the existence of a deep level in the AlSb barriers.
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73.21.-b Electron states and collective excitations in multilayers, quantum wells, mesoscopic, and nanoscale systems
78.55.Cr III-V semiconductors

Simple Diophantine test for the validity of conventional deep level transient spectroscopy

Dobri Batovski and Chavdar Hardalov

Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 1668 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.111825 (2 pages) | Cited 3 times

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An experimental test is proposed to check the validity of the conventional theoretical model used to interpret deep level transient spectroscopy (DLTS) spectra. The test is based on the conventional DLTS technique with time points determined from a corresponding Diophantine equation. The test is simple, fast, and can be realized during each experimental DLTS measurement.
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71.55.-i Impurity and defect levels

{H,P}0↔{H,P}+ transitions: A new look at donor‐hydrogen pairs in Si

S. K. Estreicher and R. Jones

Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 1670 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.111826 (3 pages) | Cited 9 times

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Recent experiments have shown that reversible changes in the charge state of {H,P} pairs in silicon can be initiated by injection of holes. The reaction {H,P}0+h+→{H,P}+ is spontaneous, while the reverse {H,P}++e−→{H,P}0 is very slow. We have calculated the barriers for these two reactions and the vibrational modes of H in the two charge states. These calculations explain most of the new data and two experimentally verifiable predictions are made.
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71.55.Cn Elemental semiconductors
61.72.uf Ge and Si
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