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18 Apr 1994

Volume 64, Issue 16, pp. 2047-2180

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Mylar‐film‐compensated π and parallel‐aligned liquid crystal cells for direct‐view and projection displays

Shin‐Tson Wu and Anna M. Lackner

Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 2047 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.111731 (3 pages) | Cited 20 times

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Optical properties of stretched Mylar films [poly(ethylene terephthalate)] were evaluated. Similar birefringence dispersion to liquid crystals over a wide spectral range makes Mylar an attractive phase retardation plate for display applications. Two display modes employing an antiparallel (or π) and a parallel‐aligned cell with a Mylar phase compensator were demonstrated. The film‐compensated π cell shows an 80:1 black‐to‐white contrast ratio, 60 Hz frame rate and ±45° viewing angle, and is attractive for direct view display. The film‐compensated parallel cell shows an 85:1 black‐to‐white contrast ratio, 180 Hz frame rate, and ±10° viewing angle, and is suitable for projection display.
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61.30.-v Liquid crystals
78.20.Fm Birefringence
85.60.Pg Display systems

Gain dynamics in quantum well lasers and optical amplifiers: An experimental comparison

N. Tessler, J. Mark, G. Eisenstein, J. Mørk, U. Koren, and C. A. Burrus

Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 2050 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.111733 (3 pages) | Cited 6 times

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We describe an experimental comparison of gain dynamics in quantum well lasers and optical amplifiers. We demonstrate an approximately 30% increase in the time constant describing the gain recovery on the ∼1 ps time scale in a laser above threshold. The increase is due to the high rate of stimulated emission which modifies the relative significance of the various mechanisms contributing to the gain recovery. We suggest an explanation based on the coupling of two processes: Carrier capture and carrier cooling. We conclude that laser gain dynamics contain details that cannot be revealed in experiments on optical amplifiers due to the vast differences in operating conditions between a laser and an optical amplifier.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes

Direct electronic compensation of the amplification nonlinearity in semiconductor laser amplifiers

L. F. Tiemeijer, P. J. A. Thijs, T. v. Dongen, E. J. Jansen, and J. J. M. Binsma

Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 2053 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.111734 (3 pages)

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Direct electronic compensation of the inherent amplification nonlinearity of semiconductor laser amplifiers is investigated. It is found that operating the active layer junction from a voltage source, which in theory would hold the carrier density at a constant value, does not remove the amplification nonlinearity because of the intraband carrier dynamics. However, compensation of the nonlinearity is shown to be possible by driving the laser amplifier from a negative output impedance source. Using this at 80 mA drive current compensation of the amplification nonlinearity is demonstrated for a 1310 nm polarization insensitive multiple quantum well laser amplifier showing 18 dB gain (13 dB fiber to fiber) and a nonlinearity of 0.36 dB/mW. It is further shown that the intraband carrier dynamics, mainly the carrier heating, cause limitations to both the driving conditions for which the nonlinearity can be compensated, and to the use of laser amplifiers as an amplifying detector.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
78.66.Fd III-V semiconductors

Use of multiphoton photoelectric process to generate a high brightness electron beam for free‐electron lasers

Makoto Asakawa, Kunioki Mima, Sadao Nakai, Masayuki Fujita, Kazuo Imasaki, and Chiyoe Yamanaka

Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 2056 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.111735 (3 pages) | Cited 3 times

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This letter describes a photocathode of tungsten driven by a frequency‐doubled Nd:YAG laser. In this case, photoelectrons emerged by two‐photon photoelectric process. The current density quadratically depended on the incident laser intensity, and the quantum yield then increased linearly with the laser intensity. Furthermore, by heating the cathode, we could improve the quantum yield. At a temperature around 1600 °C, the peak current was measured to be 5.8 A with an irradiation of 3.2 MW, and then the quantum yield was to be 2.4×10−6.
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79.60.-i Photoemission and photoelectron spectra
41.60.Cr Free-electron lasers

Micromachined millimeter‐wave photonic band‐gap crystals

E. Özbay, E. Michel, G. Tuttle, R. Biswas, M. Sigalas, and K.‐M. Ho

Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 2059 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.111736 (3 pages) | Cited 122 times

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We have developed a new technique for fabricating three‐dimensional photonic band‐gap crystals. Our method utilizes an orderly stacking of micromachined (110) silicon wafers to build the periodic structure. A structure with a full three‐dimensional photonic band gap centered near 100 GHz was measured, with experimental results in good agreement with theoretical predictions. This basic approach described should be extendable to build structures with photonic band‐gap frequencies ranging from 30 GHz to 3 THz.
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42.50.-p Quantum optics
85.50.-n Dielectric, ferroelectric, and piezoelectric devices
41.20.Jb Electromagnetic wave propagation; radiowave propagation

Temperature dependence of gain‐guided vertical‐cavity surface emitting laser polarization

Kent D. Choquette, D. A. Richie, and R. E. Leibenguth

Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 2062 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.111737 (3 pages) | Cited 116 times

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We show the polarization characteristics of gain‐guided vertical‐cavity surface emitting lasers are related to the temperature‐dependent cavity optical resonance and laser gain spectral alignment. Simultaneous nearly degenerate orthogonal eigen polarization states are observed at and above lasing threshold. The partitioning of power between the linear polarization states is shown to depend on the relative spectral overlap of the cavity resonance of each state with the gain. Near the condition of cavity resonance/gain alignment, an abrupt switch in the dominant eigen polarization with a region of polarized output fluctuations is evident. Rotation of the eigen polarization directions relative to the crystal axes is also observed at temperatures where the gain is blue shifted from the cavity resonances.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.60.Mi Dynamical laser instabilities; noisy laser behavior

Distributed feedback laser amplifiers combining the functions of amplifiers and channel filters

Z. Wang, T. Durhuus, B. Mikkelsen, and K. E. Stubkjaer

Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 2065 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.111708 (3 pages) | Cited 2 times

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A dynamic model for distributed feedback amplifiers, including the mode coupled equations and the carrier rate equation, is established. The presented mode coupled equations have taken into account the interaction between fast changing optical signal and the waveguide with corrugations. By showing the possibility of amplifying 100 ps pulses without pulse broadening, we anticipate that a distributed feedback amplifier can be used as a combined amplifier and channel filter in high bit rate transmission systems.  
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42.60.Da Resonators, cavities, amplifiers, arrays, and rings
42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes

Neutron focusing lens using polycapillary fibers

H. Chen, D. F. R. Mildner, and Q. F. Xiao

Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 2068 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.111709 (3 pages) | Cited 3 times

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Multiple mirror reflection at small grazing angles from the smooth surfaces of the narrow channels of polycapillary fibers can be used to transport, bend, and focus thermal neutron beams. We report the results of the focusing of a polychromatic cold neutron beam using a compact lens of borosilicate fibers and with a focal distance of 57 mm. The intensity profile of the beam at the focus is approximately conical in shape with a full width at half‐maximum of 0.49 mm, and with an average gain in intensity of about 20. These experimental results agree well with those obtained by computer simulation.
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42.79.Bh Lenses, prisms and mirrors
07.77.-n Atomic, molecular, and charged-particle sources and detectors
29.25.Dz Neutron sources

GaInO3: A new transparent conducting oxide

R. J. Cava, Julia M. Phillips, J. Kwo, G. A. Thomas, R. B. van Dover, S. A. Carter, J. J. Krajewski, W. F. Peck, J. H. Marshall, and D. H. Rapkine

Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 2071 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.111686 (2 pages) | Cited 44 times

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GaInO3, a layered material with the β Ga2O3 crystal structure, can be doped with electrons through the introduction of oxygen deficiency, Sn doping for In, or Ge doping for Ga. At atomic doping levels of 10% or less, resistivities as low as 3 mΩ cm are obtained. In contrast to polycrystalline indium tin oxide (ITO), which is distinctly green, conductive gallium indium oxide is light grey with no visible coloration. Thin films of doped GaInO3 display good transparency over the whole optical window, superior to that of ITO in the green‐blue region.
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42.70.Nq Other nonlinear optical materials; photorefractive and semiconductor materials
72.80.Jc Other crystalline inorganic semiconductors
73.61.Le Other inorganic semiconductors

Depleted double‐heterojunction optical thyristor

M. Kuijk, P. L. Heremans, G. Borghs, and R. Vounckx

Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 2073 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.111687 (3 pages) | Cited 17 times

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A novel double‐heterojunction PnpN optical thyristor is presented in which both the center n‐layer and the center p‐layer are completely depleted at equilibrium. This structure is an extremely attractive optoelectronic switch, because it allows the marriage of two usually incompatible features: speed and optical sensitivity. The speed results from the fact that our PnpN‐structure can be reset to equilibrium, from any point on the current‐voltage characteristics, in less than 10 ns by means of a simple negative anode‐to‐cathode voltage pulse. The optical sensitivity is a direct consequence of the center n‐ and p‐layers being completely depleted of free carriers at equilibrium. We show experimental evidence of this reset operation by studying the dynamics of the free‐carrier extraction from the center n‐ and p‐layers.
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42.79.Ta Optical computers, logic elements, interconnects, switches; neural networks
73.40.Kp III-V semiconductor-to-semiconductor contacts, p-n junctions, and heterojunctions

Surface‐emitted green light generated in Langmuir–Blodgett film waveguides

Ch. Bosshard, A. Otomo, G. I. Stegeman, M. Küpfer, M. Flörsheimer, and P. Günter

Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 2076 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.111688 (3 pages) | Cited 3 times

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We demonstrate second‐harmonic generation due to counterpropagating beams in planar waveguides of 2‐docosylamino‐5‐nitropyridine (DCANP). The DCANP molecules were deposited by Langmuir–Blodgett techniques and have a preferred alignment within the substrate plane. Four‐layer waveguide structures were used to optimize the trade‐off between propagation loss and efficient surface‐emitted green light.
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42.65.Ky Frequency conversion; harmonic generation, including higher-order harmonic generation
78.66.Qn Polymers; organic compounds

Novel silicon waveguide switch based on total internal reflection

Yuliang Liu, Enke Liu, Guozheng Li, Shengliang Zhang, Jinsheng Luo, Fan Zhou, Meiqiao Cheng, Bingchen Li, and Huang Ge

Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 2079 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.111689 (2 pages) | Cited 20 times

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Novel silicon asymmetric optical switches with transverse injection structure have been proposed and fabricated which are based on total internal reflection and free‐carrier effect. The switches have a quite short operation length of about 200 μm. The device performance was measured at the wavelength of 1.3 μm. It shows that the crosstalk is less than −11.4 dB at an injection current of 85 mA. Response time is 100 ns. They are very suitable for silicon monolithic optoelectronic integration
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42.65.Pc Optical bistability, multistability, and switching, including local field effects
42.82.Gw Other integrated-optical elements and systems
42.79.Ta Optical computers, logic elements, interconnects, switches; neural networks

Nonlinear reflection at a dielectric‐carbon suspension interface: Macroscopic theory and experiment

C. M. Lawson and R. R. Michael

Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 2081 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.111985 (3 pages) | Cited 4 times

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We report on a theoretical investigation of the nonlinear reflection that has been experimentally observed when Nd:YAG laser pulses interact with a dielectric‐carbon particle suspension interface. This interaction leads to plasma formation, laser induced cavitation, and the formation of a vapor layer at the dielectric interface. This vapor layer results in total internal reflection. The theoretical fit to the experimental data shows that the calculated fluence threshold of the plasma formation process is 1 J/cm2. The theory also shows that the formation time of the vapor interface is on the order of a few nanoseconds and depends on the concentration of the carbon particles in the suspension.
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42.65.-k Nonlinear optics
79.20.Ds Laser-beam impact phenomena

Local hydrogen environments in Gd1−xFex thin films amorphous alloys from effusion experiments

M. Vergnat, H. Chatbi, and G. Marchal

Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 2084 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.111690 (3 pages) | Cited 5 times

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Thin films of hydrogenated Gd1−xFex (0.25≤x≤0.90) amorphous alloys were prepared by reactive evaporation. Effusion experiments, showing several hydrogen release peaks, allowed us to describe the site distribution of hydrogen in these alloys. The different local environments correspond to tetrahedral sites and the stability of these sites increases with the number of rare‐earth neighbors.
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68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
81.15.Cd Deposition by sputtering

Single‐walled carbon nanotubes produced at high yield by mixed catalysts

Supapan Seraphin and Dan Zhou

Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 2087 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.111691 (3 pages) | Cited 66 times

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We report here on the high‐density preparation of single‐wall tubes in the presence of mixed catalysts of the types Fe/Ni and Co/Ni, in the soot as well as in the weblike deposits forming in the chamber. The yield is much higher than previously reported, and gram quantities can be obtained. Diameters cover the range from 0.9 to 3.1 nm, larger than previously reported, with the histogram showing only one peak at 1.7 nm. Evidence of an epitaxial action between C60 and single‐walled nanotubes is presented. Results from the mixed catalysts Co/Cu, Ni/Mg, and Ni/Ti are also reported.
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61.46.-w Structure of nanoscale materials
81.10.Bk Growth from vapor
82.33.Xj Plasma reactions (including flowing afterglow and electric discharges)

Drawing‐enhanced defect precursors in low‐OH content, oxygen‐deficient synthetic silica optical fibers

J. Li, S. Kannan, R. L. Lehman, and G. H. Sigel

Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 2090 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.111692 (3 pages) | Cited 6 times

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The 74 and 13 G electron paramagnetic resonance hydrogen hyperfine doublets of the Si E′ center were observed in low‐OH content, oxygen‐deficient silica optical fibers exposed to hydrogen at room temperature. These spectra were also found in hydrogen treated bulk samples but at negligible intensities compared to those in fiber samples. The significant enhancement of these doublets in the fiber samples indicates that the precursors of the 74 and 13 G hydrogen hyperfine doublets of Si E′ are substantially produced in the fiber drawing process. Possible structures of the two precursors are discussed.
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42.81.Cn Fiber testing and measurement of fiber parameters
76.30.Lh Other ions and impurities

Formation of epitaxial and textured platinum films on ceramics‐(100) MgO single crystals by pulsed laser deposition

J. Narayan, P. Tiwari, K. Jagannadham, and O. W. Holland

Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 2093 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.111693 (3 pages) | Cited 23 times

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We have investigated the formation of textured and epitaxial metallic films on (100) MgO single crystals substrates (lattice constant a=4.21 Å) as a function of deposition temperature during pulsed laser ablation. Platinum (a=3.92 Å) films on MgO with lattice misfit of 7.4% were found to grow epitaxially in the temperature range 500–700 °C. Three‐dimensional x‐ray diffraction results (theta, phi, and chi scans) show 〈100〉 epitaxy with the alignment of all three cube axes. Rutherford backscattering and channeling measurements on a film deposited at 700 °C showed a minimum yield of 2.2%, which is very close to the defect‐free single crystal value. In the temperature range 200–500 °C both 〈100〉 and 〈111〉 textures were observed. The 〈111〉 oriented (normal to the surface) films were random in the plane of the substrate, whereas 〈100〉 crystallites were epitaxial. Below 200 °C, only 〈111〉 crystallites were observed. The 〈111〉 texture of platinum films is also observed when grown on amorphous substrates such as SiO2. The experimental results are normalized with theoretical simulations addressing the minimization of film energy.
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81.15.-z Methods of deposition of films and coatings; film growth and epitaxy
81.15.Fg Pulsed laser ablation deposition

Determination of anisotropic refractive indices of a single‐crystal organic thin film by attenuated total reflection Raman spectroscopy

M. Yoshikawa, T. Gotoh, Y. Mori, M. Iwamoto, and H. Ishida

Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 2096 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.111694 (3 pages) | Cited 4 times

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We have determined the dispersion of the anisotropic refractive indices of a single‐crystal organic thin film using attenuated total reflection (ATR) Raman spectroscopy. ATR Raman spectroscopy simultaneously gives information about the molecular orientation of thin organic films and the dispersion of anisotropic refractive indices.
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78.66.Qn Polymers; organic compounds
78.30.Jw Organic compounds, polymers
78.20.Ci Optical constants (including refractive index, complex dielectric constant, absorption, reflection and transmission coefficients, emissivity)

Epitaxial growth of metal‐phthalocyanines on selenium‐terminated GaAs(111) surfaces

Hideki Yamamoto, Hirokazu Tada, Takafumi Kawaguchi, and Atsushi Koma

Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 2099 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.111695 (3 pages) | Cited 23 times

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Epitaxial films of chloro‐aluminum‐ and vanadyl‐phthalocyanines (AlPcCl and VOPc) have been prepared on GaAs(111)B surfaces by effective passivation of the surface dangling bonds with Se atoms. AlPcCl molecules are found to form commensurate centered rectangular lattices on the substrate with an intermolecular distance of 1.44 nm by means of reflection high energy electron diffraction. VOPc molecules, on the other hand, form incommensurate square lattices in which they are arranged along the 〈101〉 axes of the substrate with an intermolecular distance of 1.37 nm. The lattice matching condition between the grown films and the substrate determines the molecular arrangements.
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81.15.Hi Molecular, atomic, ion, and chemical beam epitaxy
61.05.jh Low-energy electron diffraction (LEED) and reflection high-energy electron diffraction (RHEED)
68.35.B- Structure of clean surfaces (and surface reconstruction)

Novel process for reliable ultrathin tunnel dielectrics

Ming‐yin Hao, Bikas Maiti, and Jack C. Lee

Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 2102 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.111696 (3 pages) | Cited 9 times

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A new process technique, referred to as the ‘‘oxidized‐nitrided silicon (ONS),’’ was developed for producing ultrathin (≤50 Å) dielectrics. Metal‐oxide‐semiconductor capacitors were fabricated using this novel process to investigate the dielectric quality. It was found that devices with ONS dielectrics exhibit reduced charge trapping and improved interface‐state generation characteristics. The stress‐induced leakage current, which is one of the major concerns for ultrathin dielectrics, was also suppressed by employing the ONS dielectrics. In addition, precise thickness control can be easily achieved by the ONS process even down to the ultrathin regime. The results suggest that this novel ONS process can synthesize reliable tunnel dielectrics suitable for memory applications.
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77.55.-g Dielectric thin films
73.40.Gk Tunneling
73.40.Rw Metal-insulator-metal structures

Growth mechanism of GaAs by metalorganic vapor phase epitaxy

C. C. Hsu, J. B. Xu, and I. H. Wilson

Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 2105 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.111697 (3 pages) | Cited 13 times

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We observed concentric ring patterns on metalorganic vapor phase epitaxy grown GaAs surface by atomic force microscopy. The growth mechanism for the concentric ring pattern is different from that of spiral growth due to screw dislocations. A more plausible growth mechanism for the concentric rings is the stacking fault mechanism. Stacking faults that emerge from the (100) growth surface create steps of 1/3 and 2/3 the elementary height. The 1/3 and 2/3 substeps act as persistent step sources for growth.
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68.37.Ef Scanning tunneling microscopy (including chemistry induced with STM)
68.37.Ps Atomic force microscopy (AFM)
68.37.Rt Magnetic force microscopy (MFM)
68.37.Uv Near-field scanning microscopy and spectroscopy
68.35.B- Structure of clean surfaces (and surface reconstruction)
81.15.Kk Vapor phase epitaxy; growth from vapor phase

Epitaxial layer transfer by bond and etch back of porous Si

Takao Yonehara, Kiyofumi Sakaguchi, and Nobuhiko Sato

Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 2108 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.111698 (3 pages) | Cited 63 times

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We demonstrate a novel method for bond and etch back silicon on insulator in which an epitaxial Si layer over porous Si is transferred onto a dissimilar substrate by bonding and etch back of porous Si. The highest etching selectivity (100 000:1) between the porous Si and the epitaxial layer is achieved by the alkali free solution of HF, H2O2, and H2O which is essential for this single etch‐stop method to produce a submicron‐thick active layer with superior thickness uniformity (473±14 nm) across a 5 in. silicon‐on‐insulator wafer.
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81.65.-b Surface treatments
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology

Internal photoemission studies of artificial band discontinuities at buried GaAs(100)/GaAs(100) homojunctions

Tiziana dell’Orto, J. Almeida, C. Coluzza, A. Baldereschi, G. Margaritondo, M. Cantile, S. Yildirim, L. Sorba, and A. Franciosi

Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 2111 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.111699 (3 pages) | Cited 11 times

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Internal photoemission phototransport measurements revealed 0.27±0.04 eV conduction‐ and valence‐band discontinuities induced by a Si intralayer at p‐GaAs(100)/n‐GaAs(100) homojunctions. The interface dipole originating from the heterovalent character of the Si—GaAs bonds raises the bands of the GaAs overlayer above that of the GaAs substrate.
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73.40.Kp III-V semiconductor-to-semiconductor contacts, p-n junctions, and heterojunctions
79.60.Jv Interfaces; heterostructures; nanostructures
72.40.+w Photoconduction and photovoltaic effects

Dependence of the off‐state current in polycrystalline silicon thin film on electric field in the channel

N. Lifshitz and S. Luryi

Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 2114 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.111700 (2 pages) | Cited 3 times

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We correlated the off‐state current in polycrystalline silicon (polysilicon) thin film transistor (TFT) with the peak electric field in the channel of the device. We investigated p‐channel TFTs with different gate oxide thicknesses, at varying gate and drain biases. The electric fields in the channel of the devices under these experimental conditions were calculated using both process and device simulators, and the experimental off‐state current was plotted against simulated fields. We found that in a wide range of electric fields the current exhibits a nearly exponential behavior. Different combinations of the drain and gate biases produce nearly the same off‐state current, provided the calculated peak field is the same; moreover, curves corresponding to different gate oxide thicknesses overlay each other. Our results are compatible with the model of the off‐state current as being due to the field emission at grain boundaries.
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85.30.Tv Field effect devices
73.61.Cw Elemental semiconductors

Effects of NH3 nitridation on oxides grown in pure N2O ambient

M. Bhat, G. W. Yoon, J. Kim, D. L. Kwong, M. Arendt, and J. M. White

Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 2116 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.111701 (3 pages) | Cited 38 times

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Effects of NH3 nitridation on the chemical and electrical properties of N2O oxides have been studied. Compared with NH3‐nitrided SiO2, NH3 nitridation does not degrade the electrical properties of N2O oxides, thus resulting in superior impurity diffusion barrier properties, while preserving excellent interface immunity to hot‐carrier injection and much lower charge trapping. Correlation studies between the chemical and electrical properties of NH3‐nitrided N2O and NH3‐nitrided SiO2 have been done to explain these results.
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73.61.Ng Insulators
81.15.-z Methods of deposition of films and coatings; film growth and epitaxy
79.60.Dp Adsorbed layers and thin films
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