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3 Jan 1994

Volume 64, Issue 1, pp. 1-128

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Effect of thermal self‐defocusing of degenerate four wave mixing in absorbing media

I. V. Tomov and P. M. Rentzepis

Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 1 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.110903 (3 pages) | Cited 37 times

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The distortion of a phase conjugate wave produced by degenerate four wave mixing as a consequence of thermal self‐defocusing is reported. The thermally induced refractive index changes cause modulation in the phase of the phase conjugate wave. The thermal self‐defocusing effect may impose a limiting factor in high repetition rate nonlinear devices.
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42.65.Jx Beam trapping, self-focusing and defocusing; self-phase modulation

Temperature field determination of InGaAsP/InP lasers by photothermal microscopy: Evidence for weak nonradiative processes at the facets

A. M. Mansanares, J. P. Roger, D. Fournier, and A. C. Boccara

Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 4 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.110918 (3 pages) | Cited 20 times

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Photothermal microscopy was used for absolute temperature determination of InGaAsP/InP lasers. High modulation frequencies were employed in order to improve spatial contrast. The strong thermal mismatch between InGaAsP and InP induces a heat confinement in the active region as shown experimentally and confirmed by finite element calculations. Facet temperature was found to be 10 K/mW for a 2‐μm‐wide active layer, which is low compared to those reported for GaAlAs/GaAs and GaInP. Moreover, measurements along the cavity do not show differences in temperature when approaching the facets. Both results indicate a weak nonradiative recombination process at the facets, in agreement with the higher mirror reliability of this type of laser.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.60.Da Resonators, cavities, amplifiers, arrays, and rings

Single‐domain layers formed in multidomain LiTaO3 by proton exchange and heat treatment

Henrik Åhlfeldt and Jonas Webjörn

Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 7 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.110875 (3 pages) | Cited 6 times

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Proton exchange and subsequent heat treatment can yield single‐domain layers at the surfaces of initially multidomain z‐cut LiTaO3. The thickness of these single‐domain layers is equal to the thickness of the domain‐inverted layer that the same processing parameters cause in initially single‐domain samples. This letter also describes how the domain structure develops when heat treatment is carried out above the Curie temperature. The results are discussed in relation to a recently proposed model for the domain‐inversion mechanism.
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42.70.Nq Other nonlinear optical materials; photorefractive and semiconductor materials
77.80.Dj Domain structure; hysteresis
77.84.Ek Niobates and tantalates
77.84.Cg PZT ceramics and other titanates
42.82.Cr Fabrication techniques; lithography, pattern transfer

Growth of laser‐quality single crystals of Nd3+‐doped calcium fluorapatite and their efficient lasing performance

X. X. Zhang, G. B. Loutts, M. Bass, and B. H. T. Chai

Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 10 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.110894 (3 pages) | Cited 11 times

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The Czochralski growth of laser‐quality Nd3+‐doped calcium fluorapatite single crystals and their lasing characterization are reported. Low threshold and high efficiency lasing performances were achieved in both continuous‐wave and long pulse laser‐pump‐laser operation. The effect of concentration quenching on laser performance is discussed.
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42.55.Rz Doped-insulator lasers and other solid state lasers
42.70.Hj Laser materials
78.45.+h Stimulated emission
81.10.-h Methods of crystal growth; physics and chemistry of crystal growth, crystal morphology, and orientation

Temperature profile along the cavity axis of high power quantum well lasers during operation

F. P. Dabkowski, A. K. Chin, P. Gavrilovic, S. Alie, and D. M. Beyea

Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 13 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.110901 (3 pages) | Cited 30 times

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Measurements of the temperature distribution along the cavity of 0.5 W AlGaAs quantum well lasers are presented. The spatial distribution of temperature was determined by measuring the spectral shift of electroluminescence emitted through a window in the GaAs substrate metallization. The average temperature of the active layer is 10–15 K higher than the heatsink temperature at 0.5 W output. Facet temperatures can exceed the average active layer temperature by over 100 K. Data are also presented illustrating the temperature profile at different drive currents between threshold and the maximum operating current. A temperature profile of a laser with a damaged front facet is presented, showing a hot region that is twice the size of the defect.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.60.Da Resonators, cavities, amplifiers, arrays, and rings
78.60.Fi Electroluminescence

Modified KTiOPO4 crystals for noncritical phase matching applications

G. M. Loiacono, R. A. Stolzenberger, and D. N. Loiacono

Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 16 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.111959 (3 pages) | Cited 5 times

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Crystals of K1−xNaxTiOPO4 were grown by the high temperature solution method and their optical and electrical properties evaluated. In the composition range 18<x<47 mol %, noncritical phase matching of 1064 nm light should be achievable along the crystallographic [100]. Substitution of Na for K also shifts the short wavelength cutoff from 994 to 981 nm. This is the shortest wavelength to be type II frequency doubled by a member of the KTiOPO4 family of materials.  
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42.65.Ky Frequency conversion; harmonic generation, including higher-order harmonic generation
42.70.Nq Other nonlinear optical materials; photorefractive and semiconductor materials
77.84.-s Dielectric, piezoelectric, ferroelectric, and antiferroelectric materials

On the improvement of broadband stimulated Brillouin scattering reflectors

M. R. Perrone and Y. B. Yao

Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 19 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.110902 (3 pages) | Cited 3 times

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Stimulated Brillouin scattering (SBS) of unmodified XeCl laser radiation in n‐hexane was investigated for building phase‐conjugating mirrors. It was found that the SBS mirror reflectivity could be improved by setting a holographic grating in front of the SBS mirror and by using the first order beam reflected by the grating to pump the Brillouin medium. Maximum energy and power reflectivities of 45% and 80%, respectively, were measured. The SBS mirror energy reflectivity was reduced by 45% by removing the grating. The phase conjugation fidelity of the backscattered radiation was close to one, with or without the grating.
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42.65.Es Stimulated Brillouin and Rayleigh scattering
42.65.Jx Beam trapping, self-focusing and defocusing; self-phase modulation
42.79.Bh Lenses, prisms and mirrors

Selective poling of nonlinear optical polymer films by means of a monoenergetic electron beam

G.‐M. Yang, S. Bauer‐Gogonea, G. M. Sessler, S. Bauer, W. Ren, W. Wirges, and R. Gerhard‐Multhaupt

Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 22 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.110904 (3 pages) | Cited 22 times

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Electron beams with an energy of 10 keV were employed for selectively poling only the lower part of a typical nonlinear optical guest/host polymer at a temperature of 90 °C. The resulting dipole orientation was examined by means of electro‐optical measurements and thermally stimulated depolarization, while the nonuniform charge and polarization profiles were probed with laser‐induced pressure pulses and thermal waves. The concept of nonlinear optical frequency conversion with simultaneous mode conversion is described as an example for the advantages of such a selective poling process.
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42.70.Jk Polymers and organics
42.65.Ky Frequency conversion; harmonic generation, including higher-order harmonic generation
77.80.-e Ferroelectricity and antiferroelectricity
61.80.Fe Electron and positron radiation effects

Production of large diameter microwave plasma using an annular slot antenna

Takayuki Ikushima, Yoshihiro Okuno, and Hiroharu Fujita

Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 25 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.110905 (3 pages) | Cited 15 times

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A new production method for a large diameter microwave plasma is proposed without magnetic coils. An annular slot antenna and two ring‐typed permanent magnets are used for the generation of high density plasma in the circumference of a chamber with the plasma confinement and diffusing to the central region. The optimum arrangement of components in the device is examined for the production of the large diameter uniform plasma. The almost uniform electron density of about 4×1010 cm−3 is realized, and the plasma with two electron temperatures is observed. The measurement with a directional ion energy analyzer reveals that ions are almost isotropic.
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52.50.-b Plasma production and heating
52.80.Pi High-frequency and RF discharges

Growth of fcc Fe films on diamond

D. P. Pappas, J. W. Glesener, V. G. Harris, Y. U. Idzerda, J. J. Krebs, and G. A. Prinz

Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 28 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.110910 (3 pages) | Cited 31 times

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The epitaxial growth of fcc iron films on the (001) face of diamond has been achieved. The films were studied by reflection high‐energy electron diffraction and angle‐resolved Auger electron diffraction. The studies show that 4–5 atomic layers of Fe on C(100) form a continuous film. The films as deposited at room temperature are disordered, and after a high‐temperature anneal have a fcc structure at room temperature.
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68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology

Epitaxial growth and surface structure of (0001) Be on (111) Si

Judith A. Ruffner, J. M. Slaughter, James Eickmann, and Charles M. Falco

Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 31 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.110911 (3 pages) | Cited 6 times

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We report the growth of epitaxial single‐crystal (0001) hcp‐Be on (111) Si substrates using molecular beam epitaxy. The Be is oriented with Be[1010]∥Si[110] and Be[1120]∥Si[211]. Crystalline quality improves with increasing deposition temperature T, where T=100, 200, 300, 400, and 500 °C for the results reported here. The films deposited at T≤300 °C are smooth while those deposited at T≥400 °C are rough. A superstructure was observed on the surface, probably √3×√3, R30°, for films grown at T=300 °C. These epitaxial beryllium films are of much better quality than those we previously reported on α‐Al2O3.
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81.15.Hi Molecular, atomic, ion, and chemical beam epitaxy
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
68.35.B- Structure of clean surfaces (and surface reconstruction)

Double‐crystal x‐ray diffraction from periodically corrugated crystalline semiconductor surfaces

Liberato De Caro, Pasquale Sciacovelli, and Leander Tapfer

Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 34 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.110912 (3 pages) | Cited 17 times

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In this work we present a diffraction model that allows us to calculate the double‐crystal x‐ray diffraction pattern of corrugated surfaces. The model is based on a semidynamical x‐ray diffraction theory, where the dynamical theory is used in order to describe the diffraction of the substrate crystal, while the kinematical theory is used to describe the x‐ray diffraction of the surface grating. The interface between different parts of the periodic surface array is described by using the multiple‐slit Fraunhofer formalism. Our x‐ray diffraction model is used to simulate the experimental (400) and (422) reflection patterns of corrugated (100) GaAs surfaces.
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61.05.cc Theories of x-ray diffraction and scattering
68.35.B- Structure of clean surfaces (and surface reconstruction)
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology

Force sensing microcantilever using sputtered zinc oxide thin film

T. Itoh and T. Suga

Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 37 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.110913 (3 pages) | Cited 15 times

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A force sensing microcantilever has been developed with sputtered ZnO thin film sandwiched electrodes. Typical cantilever dimensions are 150 μm long×50 μm wide×3.5 μm thick. The ZnO film with thickness of 1.0 μm has high resistivity (≳2.0×107 Ω m) and good piezoelectricity. By detecting the change of the resistance between the electrodes, the static deflection of the cantilever end can be sensed. The ac deflection of the cantilever can be measured with high sensitivity by using the piezoelectric effect. The cantilever in question is useful for scanning force microscopy both in static contact mode and in dynamic mode.
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68.37.Ef Scanning tunneling microscopy (including chemistry induced with STM)
68.37.Ps Atomic force microscopy (AFM)
68.37.Rt Magnetic force microscopy (MFM)
68.37.Uv Near-field scanning microscopy and spectroscopy
77.65.-j Piezoelectricity and electromechanical effects
07.07.Mp Transducers

Characterization of thermally annealed In0.2Ga0.8As/GaAs single quantum wells by optical spectroscopy and ion beam techniques

A. Kozanecki, W. P. Gillin, and B. J. Sealy

Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 40 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.110914 (3 pages)

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Diffusion from ultrathin (10 nm) strained GaAs/In0.2Ga0.8As/GaAs single quantum wells (SQWs) subjected to rapid thermal annealing up to 1050 °C was followed using luminescence and Rutherford backscattering spectroscopy (RBS) in combination with channeling. The SQW shapes (In profiles) determined with the help of RBS have been compared with those predicted from optical measurements. A satisfactory agreement between diffusion length of In at 1050 °C, evaluated using both experimental methods, has been obtained. Angular scans across the 〈110〉 axial channel in the (100) plane were applied to study the strain relaxation in SQWs. No signs of generation or misfit dislocation were found, confirming that the strain relaxes solely via intermixing.
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68.65.-k Low-dimensional, mesoscopic, nanoscale and other related systems: structure and nonelectronic properties
66.30.Ny Chemical interdiffusion; diffusion barriers
61.85.+p Channeling phenomena (blocking, energy loss, etc.)
78.66.Fd III-V semiconductors

Hard amorphous carbon coatings on soft epitaxial fullerite films by fullerene beam deposition

H.‐G. Busmann, H. Gaber, H. Strasser, and I. V. Hertel

Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 43 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.110915 (3 pages) | Cited 4 times

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The technique of energetic cluster impact is used to coat epitaxial fullerite films with amorphous carbon. The energetic all‐carbon beam which forms the amorphous carbon is achieved by evaporating, ionizing, and accelerating fullerene powder. Diffraction patterns obtained with a transmission electron microscope show that the lattice structure of the coated fullerite film and its epitaxial relationship to the substrate are maintained during the coating process. Raman spectra give very strong evidence that diffusion of oxygen into the fullerite film is prohibited by the coating.
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81.15.-z Methods of deposition of films and coatings; film growth and epitaxy
61.46.-w Structure of nanoscale materials
68.65.-k Low-dimensional, mesoscopic, nanoscale and other related systems: structure and nonelectronic properties

Open air deposition of SiO2 film from a cold plasma torch of tetramethoxysilane‐H2‐Ar system

Kiyoto Inomata, Hyunkwon Ha, Khaliq A. Chaudhary, and Hideomi Koinuma

Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 46 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.110916 (3 pages) | Cited 33 times

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A rf plasma beam was generated in the stream of atmospheric pressure argon to be exhausted from a cylindrical nozzle into air. The temperature measurements indicate a nonequilibrium low temperature nature of this plasma. By using this cold plasma torch, films were deposited on the substrates placed in air at growth rates higher than 100 Å/s by feeding tetramethoxysilane into the plasma. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and x‐ray photoelectron spectroscopy revealed that the films were essentially SiO2 and their structures and properties could be improved by admixing hydrogen in the plasma. The SiO2 films deposited at a rate of 120 Å/s from Si(OCH3)4‐H2‐Ar plasma had surfaces as smooth and hard as Corning 7059 glass.
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81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)

CdTe/MnTe short‐period superlattices: Elastic properties

E. Abramof, W. Faschinger, H. Sitter, and A. Pesek

Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 49 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.110917 (3 pages) | Cited 2 times

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We report on the structural characterization of CdTe/MnTe short‐period superlattices. The critical thickness of MnTe on CdTe layers was determined by reflection high‐energy electron diffraction experiments. Detailed high‐resolution x‐ray diffraction measurements and the computer simulation of the measured spectra enabled the determination of the zinc blende MnTe elastic properties in the superlattices. The knowledge of these properties allowed the growth of strain balanced CdTe/MnTe superlattices pseudomorphic to a Cd0.96Zn0.04Te buffer. The superlattices exhibited x‐ray linewidths of about 100 arcsec.
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68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
68.60.Bs Mechanical and acoustical properties
75.70.-i Magnetic properties of thin films, surfaces, and interfaces

Ge growth on Si using atomic hydrogen as a surfactant

Akira Sakai and Toru Tatsumi

Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 52 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.110919 (3 pages) | Cited 110 times

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We have examined the effect of adsorbed atomic hydrogen (H) on the evolution of Ge films on Si(001) and (111) substrates in solid‐source molecular‐beam epitaxy. The H flux was supplied separately from the Ge flux. By cross‐sectional high‐resolution transmission electron microscopy it was observed that H acted as a surfactant during growth, suppressing island formation of Ge on both substrates. The effect of the H surfactant on variation of the growth mode is also discussed.  
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81.15.Hi Molecular, atomic, ion, and chemical beam epitaxy

Direct observation of ferroelastic phase transition in Er‐doped lanthanum pentaphosphate with synchrotron topography

Z. W. Hu, S. S. Jiang, P. Q. Huang, X. R. Huang, D. Feng, J. Y. Wang, and L. X. Li

Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 55 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.110920 (3 pages) | Cited 9 times

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In situ observation of the ferroelastic phase transition in Er‐doped lanthanum pentaphosphate has been carried out by real time white‐beam synchrotron radiation x‐ray topography. The ferroelastic domain walls are found to vanish and reappear with characteristics of a classical second‐order transition on topographs on cycling the sample between room temperature and above the transition temperature. However, fluctuations of the number of domain walls with temperature approaching the Curie point are revealed for the first time and shown to be reversible. Discussions on these interesting phenomena are presented.
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77.80.-e Ferroelectricity and antiferroelectricity
77.84.Ek Niobates and tantalates
77.84.Cg PZT ceramics and other titanates
61.05.cf X-ray scattering (including small-angle scattering)
61.05.cj X-ray absorption spectroscopy: EXAFS, NEXAFS, XANES, etc.

Uniform and large‐area deposition of diamond by cyclic thermal plasma chemical vapor deposition

Keisuke Eguchi, Shigeo Yata, and Toyonobu Yoshida

Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 58 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.110921 (3 pages) | Cited 6 times

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Cyclic thermal plasma chemical vapor deposition is used to deposit diamond films on the substrates placed on a rotating stage with the plasma torch mounted off axis from the center of rotation. The Ar‐H2‐CH4 plasma jet was generated by a 50 kW level hybrid plasma torch under 250 Torr, and the jet could be extended as long as 300 mm from the torch exit. Pure diamond films were successfully deposited on relatively large‐area substrates. The thickness variations within a 10 cm2 area were less than 3% in the direction of rotation, and around 70% in the perpendicular direction. Deposition rates were about 1 nm layers per pass. These corresponded to a conversion efficiency of about 2% (1 carat/h) from CH4 to diamond.
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81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)

Effect of superlattice layer elastic moduli on hardness

M. Shinn and S. A. Barnett

Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 61 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.110922 (3 pages) | Cited 49 times

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Epitaxial V0.6Nb0.4N/NbN superlattices have been deposited on MgO(100) by reactive magnetron sputtering. The V0.6Nb0.4N alloy was chosen for one layer, rather than VN, in order to reduce the lattice mismatch from 5.7% to 3.5%, allowing growth of superlattices with relatively planar layers. The elastic moduli of NbN and V0.6Nb0.4N are nearly equal, in contrast to previously studied high‐hardness nitride superlattices where the layer moduli differed substantially. Vickers microhardness measurements showed no measurable deviation (<4 GPa) from alloy values. The results verify that the difference in layer elastic moduli is the primary parameter determining nitride superlattice hardening.
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68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
62.20.D- Elasticity

p‐type gallium nitride by reactive ion‐beam molecular beam epitaxy with ion implantation, diffusion, or coevaporation of Mg

M. Rubin, N. Newman, J. S. Chan, T. C. Fu, and J. T. Ross

Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 64 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.110870 (3 pages) | Cited 85 times

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Gallium nitride is one of the most promising materials for ultraviolet and blue light‐emitting diodes and lasers. The principal technical problem that limits device applications has been achieving controllable p‐type doping. Molecular beam epitaxy assisted by a nitrogen ion beam produced p‐type GaN when doped via ion implantation, diffusion, or coevaporation of Mg. Nearly intrinsic p‐type material was also produced without intentional doping, exhibiting hole carrier concentrations of 5×1011 cm−3 and hole mobilities of over 400 cm2/V/s at 250 K. This value for the hole mobility is an order of magnitude greater than previously reported.
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68.55.Ln Defects and impurities: doping, implantation, distribution, concentration, etc.
81.15.Hi Molecular, atomic, ion, and chemical beam epitaxy
61.72.uj III-V and II-VI semiconductors

Comparison of graded and abrupt junction In0.53Ga0.47As heterojunction bipolar transistors

J. A. Baquedano, A. F. J. Levi, and B. Jalali

Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 67 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.110871 (3 pages) | Cited 10 times

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We compare calculated intrinsic forward delay as a function of base thickness and p‐type doping level in n‐p‐n heterojunction bipolar transistors with graded as well as abrupt Al0.48In0.52As/In0.53Ga0.47As and InP/In0.53Ga0.47As emitter‐base junctions. We find that, for a given p‐type concentration and fixed base delay time, an InP/In0.53Ga0.47As abrupt junction design results in high intrinsic speed, low base resistance, and modest power consumption.
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85.30.Pq Bipolar transistors
85.30.De Semiconductor-device characterization, design, and modeling
73.40.Kp III-V semiconductor-to-semiconductor contacts, p-n junctions, and heterojunctions
72.20.Ht High-field and nonlinear effects

Characterization of deep traps in semi‐insulators by current transients

S. Maimon and S. E. Schacham

Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 70 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.111958 (3 pages) | Cited 1 time

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Deep traps in semi‐insulators (SI) are characterized using a junction composed of an epitaxial p‐type layer grown on SI n‐type layer. At a reverse bias electrons are released from the traps resulting in a current transient through the substrate. Simultaneously the depletion region in the epilayer expands until the entire layer is depleted leading to a decaying epitaxial current. The analysis of these transients renders the electron emission and capture coefficients and lifetime, and the energy location of the traps. The long current decay are accelerated by illuminating the sample with photons of energy below the band gap, as long as their energy is larger than the difference between trap energy and the bottom of the conduction band. Thus we determined directly this energy difference.
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71.55.Eq III-V semiconductors
73.40.Kp III-V semiconductor-to-semiconductor contacts, p-n junctions, and heterojunctions
72.20.Jv Charge carriers: generation, recombination, lifetime, and trapping

Spatial resolution of selectively deposited diamond stripes on ion implanted Si(100)

J. T. Huang, S. J. Lin, J. Hwang, and T. S. Lin

Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 73 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.110872 (3 pages) | Cited 3 times

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Diamond stripes were successfully grown on the P+ ion implanted Si(100) substrate without the diamond abrasives pretreatment. The pattern of a transmission line model (TLM) was used to define the shape of the diamond stripes on Si(100). Lateral resolution of diamond stripes depended on the thickness of SiO2 on the patterned Si(100) substrate. The width of each diamond stripe was about the same as that of the corresponding SiO2 open window for the SiO2 layer of 18 000 and 9000 Å. A critical SiO2 thickness existed for diamond stripe deposition on the implanted Si(100), below which good spatial resolution of diamond stripes could not be achieved.
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81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)
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