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8 Aug 1994

Volume 65, Issue 6, pp. 655-790

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New properties and applications of electron‐beam evaporated silicon in submicron elevated source/drain metal‐oxide‐semiconductor field‐effect transistors

Mohammad R. Mirabedini, Scott H. Goodwin‐Johansson, and Hisham Z. Massoud

Appl. Phys. Lett. 65, 728 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.113014 (3 pages)

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We report the porous nature of electron‐beam evaporated silicon on the sidewalls of metal‐oxide‐semiconductor field‐effect transistor (MOSFET) gate spacers. This property was used to develop and fabricate submicron elevated source/drain MOSFETs with 200–500 Å ultrashallow junctions. Using electron‐beam evaporated silicon reduces fabrication complexity, overcomes common problems inherent to elevated source/drain MOSFETs, and yields a self‐aligned process.  
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73.40.Qv Metal-insulator-semiconductor structures (including semiconductor-to-insulator)
85.40.Hp Lithography, masks and pattern transfer
85.30.De Semiconductor-device characterization, design, and modeling

Phase modulation in InGaAsP barrier, reservoir, and quantum well electron transfer structures, grown by chemical beam epitaxy

M. Glick, R. Monnard, B. Dwir, J. F. Carlin, A. Rudra, M. A. Dupertuis, F. K. Reinhart, and G. Weiser

Appl. Phys. Lett. 65, 731 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.112213 (3 pages)

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We have measured phase modulation in the first chemical beam epitaxy grown InGaAsP/InP barrier, reservoir, and quantum well electron transfer structures. We obtain a negative refractive index change, Δn, similar to that found in the InGaAs/InAlAs system. Using new designs to reduce the leakage current in this material system, we obtain a leakage current <1 A/cm2. Our results show an unexpected negative Δn for both positive and negative bias, which we explain using calculations of the wave function.
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78.66.Fd III-V semiconductors
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
42.79.Hp Optical processors, correlators, and modulators

Sublimation mechanisms of (100) and (111) CdTe

S. Tatarenko, B. Daudin, and D. Brun

Appl. Phys. Lett. 65, 734 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.112214 (3 pages) | Cited 13 times

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The sublimation activation energies of (100) and (111)B CdTe have been determined by reflection high energy electron diffraction oscillation measurements. An interpretation of the data is proposed, assuming that the sublimation can be described in both cases by a two‐step mechanism. In the explored temperature range, the sublimation kinetics are governed by a common process, leading to a unique activation energy value of 1.90±0.05 eV.
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68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
64.70.Hz Solid-vapor transitions
61.05.jh Low-energy electron diffraction (LEED) and reflection high-energy electron diffraction (RHEED)

Electrical characterization of an ultrahigh concentration boron delta‐doping layer

B. E. Weir, L. C. Feldman, D. Monroe, H.‐J. Grossmann, R. L. Headrick, and T. R. Hart

Appl. Phys. Lett. 65, 737 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.112215 (3 pages) | Cited 15 times

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We report a boron δ‐doping layer in crystalline silicon with an electrically active concentration of 1×1022 cm−3 and a mobility of ∼20 cm2/V s. This structure was fabricated by low‐temperature molecular‐beam epitaxy with boron confined to 3 monolayers in the silicon growth direction. Complete electrical activation is observed, showing metallic conduction down to 4 K. This two‐dimensional doped layer, incorporated into the crystal lattice, represents a volume concentration exceeding the solid solubility of boron in silicon by two orders of magnitude. These high‐concentration structures fill an unexplored region of the mobility versus concentration curve.
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61.72.uf Ge and Si
81.15.Hi Molecular, atomic, ion, and chemical beam epitaxy

Photopumped room‐temperature edge‐ and vertical‐cavity operation of AlGaAs‐GaAs‐InGaAs quantum‐well heterostructure lasers utilizing native oxide mirrors

M. J. Ries, T. A. Richard, S. A. Maranowski, N. Holonyak, and E. I. Chen

Appl. Phys. Lett. 65, 740 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.112216 (3 pages) | Cited 32 times

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Data are presented on the 300‐K continuous and pulsed photopumped laser operation of AlyGa1−yAs‐GaAs‐InxGa1−xAs quantum‐well heterostructure (QWH) crystals that utilize large‐index‐step high‐contrast distributed Bragg reflector mirrors. The mirrors are formed by selective lateral oxidation (H2O+N2, 425 °C) of three lower and three upper AlAs layers in the structure, resulting in enhanced cavity Q in the vertical direction. The laterally oxidized mirrors, a small lower and an upper ‘‘stack’’ that sandwich a lateral waveguide and double QW active region, are of sufficient quality to permit vertical‐cavity laser operation of the QWH crystals.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.60.Da Resonators, cavities, amplifiers, arrays, and rings
73.40.Ty Semiconductor-insulator-semiconductor structures
81.65.-b Surface treatments

Synthesis of superconducting Pb‐doped HgBa2CaCu2Oy films by laser ablation and post‐annealing

Hiroko Higuma, Shoji Miyashita, and Fusaoki Uchikawa

Appl. Phys. Lett. 65, 743 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.112217 (3 pages) | Cited 8 times

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Superconducting Pb‐doped HgBa2CaCu2Oy films have been successfully synthesized on the (100) SrTiO3 substrate by laser ablation using a Pb‐doped Hg‐1212 target and post‐annealing. The as‐deposited film was post‐annealed with a pellet of the same powders as those of the target at 760 °C for 20 min in an evacuated quartz tube. The obtained film exhibited the (00n) oriented x‐ray diffraction pattern of the Hg‐1212. The superconducting transition temperature, Tczero, was 117 K. Anisotropy of magnetization, M(T) and M‐H curves in the directions of two different fields was confirmed.
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74.78.-w Superconducting films and low-dimensional structures
74.72.-h Cuprate superconductors
81.15.Fg Pulsed laser ablation deposition

Thermally stimulated current related to Cu antisite‐vacancy complex defects in Cu‐diffused semi‐insulating GaAs

K. Kuriyama, K. Tomizawa, S. Uematsu, and Hirokazu Takahashi

Appl. Phys. Lett. 65, 746 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.112218 (3 pages) | Cited 5 times

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The evaluation of the copper related complex defects in copper‐diffused semi‐insulating GaAs was studied using thermally stimulated current (TSC) method. Two new TSC traps, T1 (ionization energy 0.25 eV) and T2 (0.52 eV), are observed. These traps are consistent with two acceptor levels evaluated by van der Pauw method and samples change p as the T2 trap appears with increasing copper content. These results suggest that the shallower T1 trap compensates not only the midgap electron trap (EL2 defect) but also the deep T2 trap. The relative photoionization cross sections, which have a maximum at around 940 nm (1.32 eV) for the T1 trap and at around 1400 nm (0.89 eV) for the T2 trap, respectively, are obtained. Origins of these traps are also discussed.
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71.55.Eq III-V semiconductors
61.72.J- Point defects and defect clusters
72.20.Pa Thermoelectric and thermomagnetic effects

Kinetically controlled order/disorder structure in GaInP

L. C. Su, I. H. Ho, and G. B. Stringfellow

Appl. Phys. Lett. 65, 749 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.112219 (3 pages) | Cited 22 times

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A Ga0.52In0.48P order/disorder heterostructure having a band‐gap energy difference exceeding 160 meV has been grown by organometallic vapor phase epitaxy. The two layers were grown on a nominally (001)‐oriented GaAs substrate misoriented by 3° toward the [110] direction in the lattice. The disordered layer was grown first, at a temperature of 740 °C. The temperature was then reduced to 620 °C for the growth of the second, highly ordered, layer. X‐ray diffraction shows that the two layers have the same composition and are both lattice matched to the GaAs substrate. Transmission electron diffraction patterns indicate that the first layer is completely disordered and that the second layer is highly ordered with only one variant. A low density of antiphase boundaries is observed in the dark field transmission electron microscope image of the top (ordered) layer. High resolution images demonstrate that the interface is abrupt with no dislocations or other defects. Photoluminescence measured at 10 K shows two sharp and distinct peaks at 1.998 and 1.835 eV for high excitation intensities. The peak separation is even larger at lower excitation intensities. The two peaks come from the disordered and ordered materials, respectively. The peak separation represents the largest energy difference between ordered and disordered material reported to date. This large energy difference, much larger than kT at room temperature, may make such heterostructures useful for photonic devices such as light emitting diodes and lasers.
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81.15.Kk Vapor phase epitaxy; growth from vapor phase
78.55.Cr III-V semiconductors
78.66.Fd III-V semiconductors

Thermodynamically stable p‐channel strained‐layer AlGaAs/InGaAs/GaAs heterostructure field effect transistor

A. G. Baca, T. E. Zipperian, A. J. Howard, J. F. Klem, and C. P. Tigges

Appl. Phys. Lett. 65, 752 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.112220 (3 pages) | Cited 1 time

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Device characteristics of a thermodynamically stable p‐channel, strained quantum‐well heterostructure field effect transistor (HFET) are reported. The AlGaAs/InGaAs/GaAs material system was used to fabricate the p‐channel HFETs with Al and In mole fractions of 0.20 and 0.18, respectively. Transconductances of 32 and 94 mS/mm were achieved at 300 and 77 K, respectively, for devices with 1.2 μm recessed gates. These numbers are comparable to InGaAs quantum‐well, recessed gate pHFETs whose quantum‐well thicknesses exceed the thermodynamic stability limit. These results have important implications for high performance self‐aligned devices which require high‐temperature processing.
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85.30.Tv Field effect devices
73.40.Kp III-V semiconductor-to-semiconductor contacts, p-n junctions, and heterojunctions
72.80.Ey III-V and II-VI semiconductors

1.09‐eV Schottky barrier height of nearly ideal Pt/Au contacts directly deposited on n‐ and p+n‐Al0.48In0.52As layers

A. Fricke, G. Stareev, T. Kummetz, D. Sowada, J. Mähnss, W. Kowalsky, and K. J. Ebeling

Appl. Phys. Lett. 65, 755 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.112221 (3 pages) | Cited 15 times

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Pt/Au Schottky contacts on AlInAs lattice‐matched to InP have been fabricated using effective cleaning of the semiconductor surface with low‐energy (30 eV) Ar+ ions prior to the metal deposition. A short‐time annealing of the contacts at moderate elevated temperatures in the range of 230 to 430 °C was employed in order to eliminate eventual postbombardment defects. Subsequently, an increase of the effective Schottky barrier height from 0.85 to 1.09 eV was observed. This improvement is probably due to the heteroalignment between PtAs2 and AlAs phases which easily appears if intimate contacts are considered. Conventionally prepared wafers (without ion‐beam treatment) exhibit a barrier height of 0.82 eV which remains unchanged during annealing. The initial breakdown voltage in ion‐etched samples rises from −18 to −28 V and the reverse current density at −10 V diminishes by more than two orders to less than 8×10−7 A cm−2. An ideality factor n very close to unity was obtained from the slope of forward current‐voltage characteristics of contacts to homogeneously and shallow Zn‐doped substrates.
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73.30.+y Surface double layers, Schottky barriers, and work functions
73.40.-c Electronic transport in interface structures

Photoconduction in fullerene films

R. Könenkamp, J. Erxmeyer, and A. Weidinger

Appl. Phys. Lett. 65, 758 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.112222 (3 pages) | Cited 11 times

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We report results from a detailed study of photoconduction in C60 films. At low temperatures the photoaction spectra show vibrational coupling to the first electronic transition, indicating that the generation of mobile carriers in the solid involves molecular excitation schemes. The lowest energy transition is found to occur at photon energies of ∼1.8 eV. Below this energy, only weak and field‐dependent photoresponse is observed. We attribute this to a tail of localized states related to defects in the film. The edge between localized and extended states approximately coincides with the first vibronic peak. From this peak we find the photoconduction edge of the film to be 1.81±0.01 eV at room temperature in the face‐centered‐cubic phase and 1.85±0.01 eV in the simple cubic phase below ∼200 K.
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73.50.Pz Photoconduction and photovoltaic effects
73.50.Gr Charge carriers: generation, recombination, lifetime, trapping, mean free paths
73.61.Cw Elemental semiconductors

Effect of electron‐hole correlation on acoustic phonon broadening of bound exciton spectra

C. J. Chou and G. F. Neumark

Appl. Phys. Lett. 65, 761 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.112982 (3 pages) | Cited 2 times

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It is well‐known, experimentally, that bound exciton lines are extremely sharp, particularly in comparison to other related spectra. This has not been theoretically explained. We show here that this is due to the electron‐hole correlation, which effectively suppresses the electron‐phonon interaction and thus the associated spectral broadening. Using appropriate correlated exciton wave functions together with the deformation potentials and the piezoelectric coupling for the acoustic phonons, we obtain exciton line widths in good agreement with experiment. Our results have direct application to the recently demonstrated blue‐green injection laser.
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71.35.-y Excitons and related phenomena
78.20.hb Piezo-optical, elasto-optical, acousto-optical, and photoelastic effects

Deposition angle‐dependent morphology of laser deposited YBa2Cu3O7 thin films

Soon‐Gul Lee, Doo‐Sup Hwang, Yong Ki Park, and Jong‐Chul Park

Appl. Phys. Lett. 65, 764 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.112223 (3 pages) | Cited 14 times

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Surface morphology of pulsed laser deposited YBa2Cu3O7 films have been studied as a function of the plume angle with respect to the substrate’s normal. All the films showed c‐oriented epitaxial growth according to x‐ray diffraction analyses, and Tc(R=0)≥88 K and Jc≥106 A/cm2 at 77 K. Surface morphology, types of particles, and their number density, changed drastically with the deposition angle. As the angle was changed from 0° to 90°, particle type was changed from larger droplets to much smaller outgrowths with a gradual number density change. While larger droplets had the same composition as the target in accordance with their direct flight origination, smaller outgrowths were Cu rich and were believed to be byproducts of the locally inhomogeneous reaction of the ablated species resulting from their highly anisotropic momenta on the surface. High angle films were also found to contain a‐oriented grains.
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68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
74.72.-h Cuprate superconductors
74.78.-w Superconducting films and low-dimensional structures

Artificial two‐phase Nb‐Ti nanostructures using powder metallurgy techniques

P. D. Jablonski, P. J. Lee, and D. C. Larbalestier

Appl. Phys. Lett. 65, 767 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.112224 (3 pages) | Cited 4 times

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Several techniques to form artifical high critical current density superconducting Nb‐Ti nanostructures have been reported. A drawback to virtually all of these techniques is that they require fabrication strains of 30 or more to reduce the second phase pinning center to the optimum 1–10 nm size at which critical current densities of 103–104 A/mm2 are obtained. Here we describe a powder metallurgy process that yields 6020 A/mm2 at 2 T and 1470 A/mm2 at 5 T for an alloy with an upper critical field of ∼8 T within the same strain space (∼13) employed in the conventional Nb‐Ti fabrication process.
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74.25.Sv Critical currents
74.25.Uv Vortex phases (includes vortex lattices, vortex liquids, and vortex glasses)
84.71.Mn Superconducting wires, fibers, and tapes
81.20.Ev Powder processing: powder metallurgy, compaction, sintering, mechanical alloying, and granulation

Evidence for a ‘‘brick wall’’ microstructure in epitaxial YBa2Cu3Ox films

Z. X. Gao, I. Heyvaert, B. Wuyts, E. Osquiguil, C. Van Haesendonck, and Y. Bruynseraede

Appl. Phys. Lett. 65, 770 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.112225 (3 pages) | Cited 2 times

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We have measured the in‐plane (ab plane) critical current density Jc in sputtered, c‐axis oriented YBa2Cu3Ox films as a function of the oxygen content x. The important reduction of Jc with decreasing x can be explained in terms of a ‘‘brick wall’’ microstructure, where the critical current density is dominated by the coupling strength (along the c axis) between the superconducting CuO2 planes. Scanning tunneling microscopy images of the film surfaces are consistent with the presence of the brick wall structure, which apparently results from the overlap between terraces belonging to adjacent spiral‐shaped islands.
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74.78.-w Superconducting films and low-dimensional structures
74.25.Sv Critical currents
74.72.-h Cuprate superconductors
68.37.Ef Scanning tunneling microscopy (including chemistry induced with STM)
68.37.Ps Atomic force microscopy (AFM)
68.37.Rt Magnetic force microscopy (MFM)
68.37.Uv Near-field scanning microscopy and spectroscopy

Antenna‐coupled high‐Tc air‐bridge microbolometer on silicon

J. P. Rice, E. N. Grossman, and D. A. Rudman

Appl. Phys. Lett. 65, 773 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.112226 (3 pages) | Cited 23 times

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An antenna‐coupled high‐Tc superconducting microbolometer on a silicon substrate, operating at infrared wavelengths, is described. This detector incorporates a silicon‐micromachined yttria‐stabilized zirconia air bridge at the feed of a planar lithographic antenna to simultaneously minimize the thermal conductance and the heat capacity of the bolometer. At an operating temperature of 87.4 K, the optical responsivity measured using a 300‐K blackbody source over a 0.2–2.9 THz bandwidth is 2900 V/W, the optical noise‐equivalent power (NEP) is 9×10−12 W/Hz1/2, and the time constant is <10 μs. This NEP is nearly a factor of 2 lower than the previous record for a liquid‐nitrogen‐cooled thermal detector, and the time constant is several orders of magnitude shorter.
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85.60.Gz Photodetectors (including infrared and CCD detectors)
74.78.-w Superconducting films and low-dimensional structures
85.25.Dq Superconducting quantum interference devices (SQUIDs)

Transport superconducting properties of grain boundaries in Tl1Ba2Ca2Cu3Ox thin films

T. Nabatame, S. Koike, O. B. Hyun, I. Hirabayashi, H. Suhara, and K. Nakamura

Appl. Phys. Lett. 65, 776 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.112227 (3 pages) | Cited 39 times

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In order to investigate weak link properties in the Tl1Ba2Ca2Cu3Ox[Tl‐(1223)] system, we measured the transport properties of artificially grown grain boundaries in Tl‐(1223) films. Epitaxial thin films were grown on SrTiO3 bicrystal substrates with five tilt angles of 5°, 10°, 15°, 24°, and 36.8°. We found that the grain boundaries Jc (Jcg.b.) of large tilt angles (θ≥15°) at 77 and 5 K were substantially less than intragrain Jc(Jcg) and limited by a weak link. However, the Jcg.b./Jcg values for low tilt angle grain boundaries (θ≤10°) were almost unity. Moreover, magnetic‐field history dependent Jc values for low tilt angle grain boundaries were not observed in a low magnetic field (<0.1 T). These data indicate that the low tilt angle grain boundaries do not work as a weak link and retain high Jc.
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74.72.-h Cuprate superconductors
74.50.+r Tunneling phenomena; Josephson effects
74.25.Sv Critical currents

Thin‐film dc SQUID gradiometer using a single YBa2Cu3O7−x layer

V. Zakosarenko, F. Schmidl, H. Schneidewind, L. Dörrer, and P. Seidel

Appl. Phys. Lett. 65, 779 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.112228 (2 pages) | Cited 38 times

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A dc SQUID gradiometer with a large effective pickup area using only a single YBa2Cu3O7−x layer and step‐edge Josephson junctions on SrTiO3 substrate has been prepared. The planar gradiometer consists of two loops coupled directly to a small area SQUID in the center of the structure. The main advantage in comparison to magnetometers is the possibility of direct measurements in a magnetically unshielded environment. At 77 K without bias reversal technique we obtain a white noise level of about 4.5×10−5 Φ0 Hz−1/2 or 8×10−13 T cm−1 Hz−1/2 down to 10 Hz. At 1 Hz noise increases up to 6×10−12 T cm−1 Hz−1/2.
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85.25.Dq Superconducting quantum interference devices (SQUIDs)

Shapiro‐like steps from a weakly coupled junction prepared with high‐Tc superconducting materials

Seigô Kishino, Hideaki Kuroda, Tuneo Shibutani, and Hirohiko Niu

Appl. Phys. Lett. 65, 781 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.112229 (3 pages) | Cited 1 time

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A trilayer junction composed of YBa2Cu3Oy/La0.7Ca0.3MnOz/YBa2Cu3Oy is prepared and the current‐voltage (I‐V) characteristics are examined with and without microwave illumination. The flow of the superconducting current is observed through the trilayer junction. At the same time, the trilayer junction is illuminated with microwaves. Resultant I‐V curves show Shapiro‐like steps, the spacing of which is different from that of the real Shapiro steps as well as the increase of electrical resistance of the junction by the illumination. It is also observed that the Shapiro‐like steps exhibit a kind of negative resistance on the current‐voltage curve.
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74.50.+r Tunneling phenomena; Josephson effects
74.78.-w Superconducting films and low-dimensional structures
74.45.+c Proximity effects; Andreev reflection; SN and SNS junctions
74.25.F- Transport properties

New catalysts for diamond growth under high pressure and high temperature

Hisao Kanda, Minoru Akaishi, and Shinobu Yamaoka

Appl. Phys. Lett. 65, 784 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.112230 (3 pages) | Cited 37 times

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Diamond has been found to grow from copper, zinc, and germanium when temperatures and pressures in excess of those usually used for growth via conventional catalysts are used. Around their melting temperatures these metals are inert with respect to graphite. However, under the conditions used in this study, namely temperatures of 1600 °C and pressures of 6 GPa, they exhibit catalytic action. The conventional catalysts, which were first discovered by General Electric, act as catalysts immediately after melting in the presence of graphite, and this distinguishes them from the catalysts used in this study which should therefore be placed in a different category. A new model of diamond growth is proposed in order to explain the behavior of these new catalysts.
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81.10.-h Methods of crystal growth; physics and chemistry of crystal growth, crystal morphology, and orientation
81.30.Bx Phase diagrams of metals, alloys, and oxides

Atomic force microscope integrated with a scanning electron microscope for tip fabrication

D. A. Walters, D. Hampton, B. Drake, H. G. Hansma, and P. K. Hansma

Appl. Phys. Lett. 65, 787 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.112231 (3 pages) | Cited 6 times

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In a new combined atomic force microscope/scanning electron microscope, we have been able to fabricate and test electron‐beam‐deposited tips (e‐beam tips). With this instrument it was possible to test newly grown e‐beam tips within a few minutes of their formation, without ever breaking vacuum. Typical results on oxide‐sharpened conventional tips showed that the radius of curvature could be reduced by a factor of 2.5 with the e‐beam tips.
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68.37.Ef Scanning tunneling microscopy (including chemistry induced with STM)
68.37.Ps Atomic force microscopy (AFM)
68.37.Rt Magnetic force microscopy (MFM)
68.37.Uv Near-field scanning microscopy and spectroscopy
81.15.-z Methods of deposition of films and coatings; film growth and epitaxy
FREE

Erratum: ‘‘Preparation of single‐crystal Y3Al5O12 thin film by metalorganic chemical vapor deposition’’ [Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 1777 (1994)]

G. R. Bai, H. L. M. Chang, and C. M. Foster

Appl. Phys. Lett. 65, 790 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.113088 (1 page) | Cited 2 times

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Abstract Unavailable
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42.70.Hj Laser materials
81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)
42.55.Rz Doped-insulator lasers and other solid state lasers
99.10.Cd Errata
FREE

Erratum: ‘‘Empty state and filled state image of ZnGa acceptor in GaAs studied by scanning tunneling microscopy’’ [Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 1836 (1994)]

Z. F. Zheng, M. B. Salmeron, and E. R. Weber

Appl. Phys. Lett. 65, 790 (1994); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.113089 (1 page) | Cited 6 times

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Abstract Unavailable
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73.20.Hb Impurity and defect levels; energy states of adsorbed species
71.55.Eq III-V semiconductors
68.37.Ef Scanning tunneling microscopy (including chemistry induced with STM)
68.37.Ps Atomic force microscopy (AFM)
68.37.Rt Magnetic force microscopy (MFM)
68.37.Uv Near-field scanning microscopy and spectroscopy
61.72.S- Impurities in crystals
99.10.Cd Errata
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