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26 Jun 1995

Volume 66, Issue 26, pp. 3543-3688

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InAsSb/InAlAs strained quantum‐well lasers emitting at 4.5 μm

H. K. Choi, G. W. Turner, and H. Q. Le

Appl. Phys. Lett. 66, 3543 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.113810 (3 pages) | Cited 27 times

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Strained quantum‐well lasers emitting at 4.5 μm have been fabricated. The laser structure, grown on a GaSb substrate by molecular beam epitaxy, consists of compressively strained InAsSb active layers and tensile‐strained InAlAs barrier layers, surrounded by AlAsSb cladding layers. Under electrical injection, the laser exhibited pulsed operation up to 85 K, with threshold current density of 350 A/cm2 at 50 K. Under optical pumping, the laser operated pulsed up to 144 K, with peak power at 95 K of 0.54 W. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.  
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes

Small Faraday rotation measurement with a Fabry–Pérot cavity

David Jacob, Marc Vallet, Fabien Bretenaker, Albert Le Floch, and Roger Le Naour

Appl. Phys. Lett. 66, 3546 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.113811 (3 pages) | Cited 9 times

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The dependence of the eigenstates of a high‐finesse Fabry–Pérot cavity on intracavity circular phase anisotropies is shown to provide a very sensitive method to measure small Faraday rotations. The method is experimentally checked by measuring the Verdet constant of the air and a sensitivity of 10−10 rad is reported. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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42.60.Da Resonators, cavities, amplifiers, arrays, and rings
78.20.Ls Magneto-optical effects

Improved laser performance at 946 and 473 nm from a composite Nd:Y3Al5O12 rod

Frank Hanson

Appl. Phys. Lett. 66, 3549 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.113812 (3 pages) | Cited 26 times

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Efficient pulsed room‐temperature laser operation at 946 nm has been achieved by end‐pumping Nd:YAG with multiple diode array bars. High average power operation was made possible by the use of a water‐cooled composite doped/undoped Nd:YAG laser rod. A 5.7 W output at 946 nm was obtained at 500 Hz in long‐pulsed operation. Over 15% efficiency based on incident pump power was measured at 300 Hz. With intracavity frequency doubling using KNbO3, 366 mW was obtained at 473 nm and 200 Hz.
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42.55.Rz Doped-insulator lasers and other solid state lasers
42.70.Hj Laser materials
42.60.Da Resonators, cavities, amplifiers, arrays, and rings

Ultrahigh precision measurements of optical heterogeneity of high quality fused silica

J. M. De Freitas and M. A. Player

Appl. Phys. Lett. 66, 3552 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.113813 (3 pages) | Cited 2 times

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We present ultrahigh precision measurements of the optical heterogeneity of high quality fused silica at the δn=10−8 index level. The measurements were made with a unique scanning heterodyne interferometer developed as part of the Gravity Probe‐B Program. Striae of refractive index variation Δn<10−7 (optical path difference smaller than 5 nm) are clearly visible on an extended heterogeneity background of around Δn=6×10−7. Both striae and extended heterogeneities are repeatable to within a few parts in 108. These results show the nature and extent of the heterogeneities of high quality vitreous silica. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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42.70.Ce Glasses, quartz
78.20.Ci Optical constants (including refractive index, complex dielectric constant, absorption, reflection and transmission coefficients, emissivity)
07.60.Ly Interferometers

Super‐resolution through illumination by diffraction‐born evanescent waves

John M. Guerra

Appl. Phys. Lett. 66, 3555 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.113814 (3 pages) | Cited 2 times

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A diffraction grating in silicon with 50 nm lines and spaces is illuminated with diffraction‐born evanescent waves from its transparent replica. A rotation ϕ between the gratings results in a set of fringes with period λf that is larger than the period of the original gratings by a magnification factor M. These fringes are induced and observed with a photon tunneling microscope having an incident illumination of 650 nm in air. This super‐resolution by what may be considered a form of optical heterodyning with evanescent waves is discussed. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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42.25.Fx Diffraction and scattering
07.79.Fc Near-field scanning optical microscopes

High‐power mode‐locked semiconductor lasers using flared waveguides

Alan Mar, Roger Helkey, W. X. Zou, D. Bruce Young, and John E. Bowers

Appl. Phys. Lett. 66, 3558 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.113786 (3 pages) | Cited 11 times

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We describe the use of flared waveguide diode lasers for obtaining increased output power under mode‐locked operation. The flared waveguide expands the optical mode from a narrow region which gives a single lateral optical mode, to a wider multimode region for higher pulse saturation energy. Flared gain and flared absorber section geometry devices are compared to devices with conventional uniform waveguides. Using flared gain section devices, improvements in both pulse energy (6.8 pJ) and pulsewidth (3.3 ps) were measured compared to uniform waveguide devices. Peak powers of over 2 W are obtained, which, to our knowledge, is the highest peak power obtained directly from mode‐locked single stripe diode lasers. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.60.Fc Modulation, tuning, and mode locking

Observation of wave front curvature inside a vertical‐cavity surface‐emitting laser

A. K. Jansen van Doorn, M. P. van Exter, and J. P. Woerdman

Appl. Phys. Lett. 66, 3561 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.113787 (3 pages) | Cited 3 times

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By performing interferometric measurements on the fundamental transverse mode of a planar VCSEL, we have determined the wave front curvature inside the VCSEL cavity. The results show that the (apparent) position of the beam waist is 0–8 μm below the surface of the top DBR, i.e., up to 25% of the Rayleigh range. From these results we estimate the amount of index and gain guiding in the VCSEL. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes

150 mW unsaturated output power at 3 μm from a single‐mode‐fiber erbium cascade laser

M. Pollnau, Ch. Ghisler, G. Bunea, M. Bunea, W. Lüthy, and H. P. Weber

Appl. Phys. Lett. 66, 3564 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.113788 (3 pages) | Cited 24 times

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We report on an erbium cascade laser in a fluorozirconate fiber. Lasing on the transition 4I11/2→4I13/2 at 2.71 μm is supported by colasing on the transition 4S3/2→4I9/2 at 1.72 μm. This recycles the excitation that is lost via excited‐state absorption and avoids the saturation of the output power. Threshold at 2.71 μm is 33 mW launched pump power at 791 nm. The measured slope efficiency of 22.6% is relatively close to the 29.1% stokes‐efficiency limit. An output power of 158 mW is obtained, limited only by the 1.43 W power available from the Ti: sapphire pump laser. Output power is 15 and slope efficiency 2.5 times higher than reported in previous publications. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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42.55.Wd Fiber lasers
42.60.Da Resonators, cavities, amplifiers, arrays, and rings

Enhancement of the flux density of line radiation in the extreme ultraviolet wavelength region for spectroscopic and plasma diagnostic applications using glass‐capillary converters

V. Kantsyrev, R. Bruch, M. Bailey, and A. Shlyaptseva

Appl. Phys. Lett. 66, 3567 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.113789 (3 pages) | Cited 6 times

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New types of focusing optical devices based on glass‐capillary converters (GCCs) for the extreme ultraviolet (EUV) region have been constructed and tested. The EUV spectra of He II (np‐1s) line radiation have been recorded in the spectral region from 23.0 to 30.6 nm both with and without GCC. Experimentally an enhancement of EUV radiation by a factor of 4–5 has been demonstrated for a small solid angle of the detection system. Theoretically, a computer simulation has been performed producing an enhancement coefficient of about 30–50 for optimal conditions of such experiments. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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42.79.-e Optical elements, devices, and systems
07.60.Rd Visible and ultraviolet spectrometers
52.70.Kz Optical (ultraviolet, visible, infrared) measurements

Temperature dispersion of refractive indices in crystalline and amorphous silicon

Gorachand Ghosh

Appl. Phys. Lett. 66, 3570 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.113790 (3 pages) | Cited 22 times

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The temperature dependence of refractive indices (dn/dT) for crystalline and amorphous silicon is analyzed critically by use of a recently introduced physically meaningful model to find refractive indices at any operating temperature and wavelength. The opposite sign of the measured thermo‐optic coefficients of the amorphous silicon at 0.6328 and 0.752 μm is investigated and is explained as due to the inverted position of the isentropic band gap rather than the crystalline silicon. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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78.20.Ci Optical constants (including refractive index, complex dielectric constant, absorption, reflection and transmission coefficients, emissivity)
78.66.Jg Amorphous semiconductors; glasses

Phosphorus ablation process as a hydrogen atom probe in a remote H2 plasma reactor

G. Bruno, M. Losurdo, and P. Capezzuto

Appl. Phys. Lett. 66, 3573 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.113791 (3 pages) | Cited 12 times

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The ablation process of phosphorus by H atoms has been applied to the measurement of the H atom density in the downstream current of a H2 plasma. The calibration of the etching rate in terms of absolute density of H atoms has been done on the basis of their decay kinetics in the afterglow region. H atom density data have been determined by operating H2 plasmas at different values of gas flow rate, rf power, and pressure. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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52.50.Dg Plasma sources
82.33.Xj Plasma reactions (including flowing afterglow and electric discharges)

Nanocomposite films of lead zirconate titanate and metallic nickel by sol‐gel route

T. K. Kundu and D. Chakravorty

Appl. Phys. Lett. 66, 3576 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.113792 (3 pages) | Cited 17 times

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Films of composition 0.27 PbO, 0.24 ZrO2, 0.27 TiO2, 0.22 NiO, and containing micrometer sized lead zirconate titanate (PZT) crystallites and nanometer sized nickel particles have been synthesized by a sol‐gel technique. Metal particles have diameters in the range 2.0–7.6 nm. The films exhibit values of dielectric constant in the range 220–410 at a frequency of 1 kHz at room temperature. The optical absorption coefficient of the films shows a peak at ∼400 nm. The peak position shifts to higher wavelengths as the metal particle size is increased. The Mie theory is used to explain the results. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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77.55.-g Dielectric thin films
78.66.Sq Composite materials
81.15.Lm Liquid phase epitaxy; deposition from liquid phases (melts, solutions, and surface layers on liquids)

Diamond deposition using a planar radio frequency inductively coupled plasma

S. P. Bozeman, D. A. Tucker, B. R. Stoner, J. T. Glass, and W. M. Hooke

Appl. Phys. Lett. 66, 3579 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.113793 (3 pages) | Cited 8 times

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A planar radio frequency inductively coupled plasma has been used to deposit diamond onto scratched silicon. This plasma source has been developed recently for use in large area semiconductor processing and holds promise as a method for scale up of diamond growth reactors. Deposition occurs in an annulus which coincides with the area of most intense optical emission from the plasma. Well‐faceted diamond particles are produced when the substrate is immersed in the plasma. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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81.15.-z Methods of deposition of films and coatings; film growth and epitaxy
81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)

Growth and composition of covalent carbon nitride solids

Z. John Zhang, Shoushan Fan, and Charles M. Lieber

Appl. Phys. Lett. 66, 3582 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.113794 (3 pages) | Cited 71 times

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The composition, growth mechanism, and phases of carbon nitride thin films obtained from the reaction of laser ablated carbon and atomic nitrogen have been investigated. The nitrogen composition was found to increase to a limiting value of 50% as the fluence was decreased for laser ablation at both 532 nm and 248 nm. Analysis of these data shows that the overall growth rate determines the nitrogen composition, and suggests that a surface reaction between carbon and nitrogen represents a key step in the growth mechanism. Infrared spectroscopy has also been used to assess the phases present in the carbon nitride thin films. The implications of these results to the stoichiometry of covalent carbon nitride are discussed. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
81.15.Fg Pulsed laser ablation deposition

Effects of linewidth, microstructure, and grain growth on voiding in passivated copper lines

J. A. Nucci, Y. Shacham‐Diamand, and J. E. Sanchez

Appl. Phys. Lett. 66, 3585 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.113795 (3 pages) | Cited 16 times

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Tantalum encapsulated copper lines, 0.5–2.0 μm wide, were passivated and heat treated to determine the effect of stress state, microstructure, and grain growth on stress‐induced voiding. Void frequency and location were studied as a function of linewidth and heat treatment. Higher stress, narrow lines voided less than lower stress, wider lines. Voiding was also strongly dependent upon thermal treatment before and after passivation. These results are explained by defining preferred sites for void formation and by considering the release of free volume during grain growth in passivated lines. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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68.60.Bs Mechanical and acoustical properties
85.40.Ls Metallization, contacts, interconnects; device isolation

Growth of epitaxial MgO films on Sb‐passivated (001)GaAs: Properties of the MgO/GaAs interface

E. J. Tarsa, X. H. Wu, J. P. Ibbetson, J. S. Speck, and J. J. Zinck

Appl. Phys. Lett. 66, 3588 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.113796 (3 pages) | Cited 13 times

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The growth of epitaxial MgO films on Sb‐passivated (001)GaAs using pulsed laser deposition has been investigated. The temperature at which the Sb‐passivation layer was desorbed was found to have a significant effect on the interfacial properties of MgO/GaAs heterostructures. Heating the substrates to 350–380 °C in vacuum resulted in a (1×3) GaAs surface reconstruction suitable for the growth of epitaxial MgO films. However, residual Sb was found to persist on the GaAs surface at temperatures as high as 500 °C. MgO growth after Sb desorption at 350–380 °C resulted in a nonuniform interfacial layer which varied in thickness from ∼0.1 to 1.5 nm, whereas substrates heated to 500 °C prior to MgO growth displayed abrupt interfaces. Capacitance–voltage measurements indicated a qualitative difference in the interfacial electronic properties for the two cases. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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81.15.Kk Vapor phase epitaxy; growth from vapor phase
68.35.Fx Diffusion; interface formation
81.65.-b Surface treatments

Novel drilling technique in polyimide using visible laser

Belgacem Haba and Yukio Morishige

Appl. Phys. Lett. 66, 3591 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.113797 (3 pages) | Cited 1 time

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We report a new and fast laser‐drilling technique in polyimide. This drilling process consists of two steps. First, the polyimide is irradiated with millisecond pulse of visible laser light. Second, the debris inside and around the holes are ultrasonically cleaned in water in a short time. In this report, we also analyze the emitted light originated from the laser induced polyimide decomposition that leads to the drilling. The mechanism behind the drilling is believed to be associated to a volcano‐eruption‐like behavior. This inexpensive technique provides good quality drilling, high throughput, and very promising applications in packaging technology. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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61.80.Ba Ultraviolet, visible, and infrared radiation effects (including laser radiation)
85.40.Hp Lithography, masks and pattern transfer
79.20.Ds Laser-beam impact phenomena

Time‐resolved surface expansion of metals under picosecond laser illumination

Ady Levy and Nabil M. Amer

Appl. Phys. Lett. 66, 3594 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.113798 (3 pages) | Cited 6 times

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Picosecond photothermal displacement experiments were performed to resolve the rise time of the actual surface expansion of laser‐illuminated metals. A rise time of ∼100 ps was resolved for Ni, in agreement with the predictions of a hydrodynamic model. The applicability of the photothermal effect to time‐resolved scanning probe microscopies is addressed. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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65.40.De Thermal expansion; thermomechanical effects
78.47.-p Spectroscopy of solid state dynamics
07.79.-v Scanning probe microscopes and components

Differential Al–Ga interdiffusion in AlGaAs/GaAs and AlGaInP/GaInP heterostructures

K. J. Beernink, D. Sun, D. W. Treat, and B. P. Bour

Appl. Phys. Lett. 66, 3597 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.113799 (3 pages) | Cited 12 times

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Interdiffusion of Al and Ga in Al0.4Ga0.6As/GaAs and Al0.3Ga0.2In0.5P/Ga0.6In0.4P quantum wells has been investigated by measuring the photoluminescence of samples annealed at temperatures from 850 to 1065 °C with and without an SiO2 cap. At 1000 °C under an SiO2 cap, the Al–Ga interdiffusion coefficient is found to be at least two orders of magnitude larger for an AlGaAs/GaAs quantum well compared to an AlGaInP/GaInP quantum well within the same sample. By comparing calculated photoluminescence shifts with measured values, an activation energy of 4.5 eV is found for the Al–Ga interdiffusion in an AlGaAs/GaAs quantum well under an SiO2 cap. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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81.40.Tv Optical and dielectric properties related to treatment conditions
66.30.Ny Chemical interdiffusion; diffusion barriers
68.60.Dv Thermal stability; thermal effects
61.72.J- Point defects and defect clusters

Electromigration induced resistance changes in a single aluminum via

G. B. Alers, A. S. Oates, and N. L. Beverly

Appl. Phys. Lett. 66, 3600 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.113800 (3 pages) | Cited 6 times

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High resolution resistance measurements have been performed on isolated aluminum vias to study resistance changes induced by electromigration. The via test structures consisted of a 1.5 μm diameter, 0.8 μm deep interconnect between two aluminum alloy metallization layers separated by a TiN layer. The TiN interlayer acts as a diffusion barrier for the electromigration process at which material may accumulate or be depleted to induce resistance changes. The resistance changes were measured with a resolution of 10−9 Ω/s for a ∼0.1 Ω via. A dc current caused both increases and decreases in the resistance, depending in the current direction, which recovered completely when the current was removed. The initial resistance changes were found to be proportional to t1/2 as would be expected for a diffusive electromigration process. Because both the geometry and diffusion barrier of these structures are well defined a quantitative analysis can be made which is found to be most consistent with copper as the initial diffusing element. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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85.40.Ls Metallization, contacts, interconnects; device isolation
73.50.Td Noise processes and phenomena
66.30.Qa Electromigration

Effect of electron‐electron interaction on hot ballistic electron beams

Th. Schäpers, M. Krüger, J. Appenzeller, A. Förster, B. Lengeler, and H. Lüth

Appl. Phys. Lett. 66, 3603 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.113801 (3 pages) | Cited 15 times

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Electron‐electron scattering of ballistic electrons in a two‐dimensional electron gas was studied as a function of the electron excess energy above the Fermi energy and of temperature. At low temperatures of 1.4 K it is found that for excess energies of approximately 30% of the Fermi energy the electrons in a ballistic electron beam are already scattered significantly due to electron‐electron interaction. A very good agreement between our experimental data and theory was found, when the measured data were compared with numerical calculations based on a theory of Giuliani and Quinn [Phys. Rev. B 26, 4421 (1982)], while the agreement was only poor for the analytical approximation of the electron‐electron scattering rate. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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72.20.Dp General theory, scattering mechanisms
73.50.Bk General theory, scattering mechanisms

Rate equation model of high‐temperature performance of InGaAsP quantum well lasers

A. A. Bernussi, J. Pikal, H. Temkin, D. L. Coblentz, and R. A. Logan

Appl. Phys. Lett. 66, 3606 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.113802 (3 pages) | Cited 6 times

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We present a steady‐state phenomenological rate equation model describing the temperature dependence of the threshold current and slope efficiency of compressively strained InGaAsP multiquantum well lasers. The model is supported by measurements of differential carrier lifetime and gain carried out as a function of temperature. Differential gain, carrier density at transparency, and internal losses are shown to be the key parameters controlling the temperature sensitivity of our devices. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
78.66.Fd III-V semiconductors

Substrate selectivity in the formation of microcrystalline silicon: Mechanisms and technological consequences

P. Roca i Cabarrocas, N. Layadi, T. Heitz, B. Drévillon, and I. Solomon

Appl. Phys. Lett. 66, 3609 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.113803 (3 pages) | Cited 61 times

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We report the results of an in situ spectroscopic ellipsometry study concerning the substrate dependence of the evolution of microcrystalline silicon films deposited by alternating amorphous silicon deposition and hydrogen plasma treatment. The evolution of the composition of the films during growth, up to thicknesses of ∼100 nm, indicates that besides etching, the diffusion of atomic hydrogen efficiently promotes the growth (and/or nucleation) of buried crystallites. Moreover, the evolution of the films strongly depends on the nature of the substrate. This substrate selectivity is discussed in terms of initial growth processes. The effect of the hydrogen plasma well below the film surface, which produces the thickness‐dependent film composition, along with the substrate selectivity, may be of prime importance in technological applications of microcrystalline silicon. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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81.15.-z Methods of deposition of films and coatings; film growth and epitaxy
73.61.Cw Elemental semiconductors

Thermal capacitance spectroscopy of epitaxial 3C and 6H‐SiC pn junction diodes grown side by side on a 6H‐SiC substrate

Stephen E. Saddow, Manfred Lang, Thomas Dalibor, Gerhard Pensl, and Philip G. Neudeck

Appl. Phys. Lett. 66, 3612 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.113804 (3 pages) | Cited 8 times

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The fabrication of 3C‐SiC and 6H‐SiC pn junction diodes, grown side by side on low‐tilt‐angle 6H‐SiC substrates via a chemical vapor deposition (CVD) process, has recently been reported. Admittance spectroscopy and deep‐level transient spectroscopy (DLTS) measurements were made on one of these diodes to compare the defect structure of 3C‐ and 6H‐SiC CVD epitaxial layers grown under the same conditions. The 6H‐SiC layers revealed a single minority carrier level and a deeper broad majority carrier peak. The minority level is due to the boron‐related D center, whereas the broad majority level was identified as a double peak by a DLTS simulation. DLTS measurements on the 3C‐SiC layers revealed only one deep level impurity consistent with the boron‐related D center. Shallow donor levels observed using admittance spectroscopy correspond with the known shallow nitrogen donor in both 3C‐ and 6H‐SiC epitaxial layers. This confirms that both 3C‐ and 6H‐SiC polytypes were simultaneously formed on the same 6H‐SiC substrate. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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85.30.Kk Junction diodes
71.55.Ht Other nonmetals

Back bias depending polarization sensitivity of PtSi/p‐Si Schottky barrier detectors

K. Kapser and P. P. Deimel

Appl. Phys. Lett. 66, 3615 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.113805 (3 pages)

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The optical response of PtSi/p‐Si Schottky barrier detectors structured with a lamellar grating was investigated. The quantum efficiency Y for TE and TM polarized light for different samples with grating constants Λ=3 μm, 4 μm, 5 μm, and with a grating amplitude h=1100 nm was measured. The ratio YTM/YTE strongly depends on the back bias of the diode. Theoretical calculations are presented which explain the results taking into account the locally varying Schottky barrier height and optical absorption induced by the grating. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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73.30.+y Surface double layers, Schottky barriers, and work functions
85.60.Gz Photodetectors (including infrared and CCD detectors)
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