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6 Mar 1995

Volume 66, Issue 10, pp. 1157-1293

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Hybrid dielectric/AlGaAs mirror spatially filtered vertical cavity top‐surface emitting laser

R. A. Morgan, M. K. Hibbs‐Brenner, J. A. Lehman, E. L. Kalweit, R. A. Walterson, T. M. Marta, and T. Akinwande

Appl. Phys. Lett. 66, 1157 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.113842 (3 pages) | Cited 8 times

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A novel AlGaAs/AlAs–TiO2/SiO2 hybrid distributed Bragg reflector is implemented in a planar vertical cavity (top)‐surface emitting laser (VCSEL) to control emission (near 850 nm) to a single TEM00‐like mode. This structure exhibits ≳30 dB side‐mode suppression ratio and constant divergence (or modal profile) throughout its operating range (i.e., the detrimental effects of thermal lensing inherent in implanted VCSELs are eliminated); moreover, a record low threshold voltage ≂1.6 V, (0.16 V above photon energy) is obtained, without sacrificing the producibility of the standard all‐epitaxial structure. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.60.-v Laser optical systems: design and operation

Raman spectroscopy study of microscopic strain in epitaxial Si1−x−yGexCy alloys

J. Menéndez, P. Gopalan, G. S. Spencer, N. Cave, and J. W. Strane

Appl. Phys. Lett. 66, 1160 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.113843 (3 pages) | Cited 27 times

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Raman spectroscopy is used to characterize the microscopic bond structure of Si1−x−yGexCy alloys epitaxially grown on Si substrates by C implantation into Si1−xGex epilayers and subsequent annealing. The Ge and C concentrations in these alloys can be chosen so that its average lattice constant equals the lattice constant of Si. Our Raman results suggest that in these strain‐compensated alloys the Si–Si bonds are not identical to those in bulk Si but experience a considerable local deformation. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
78.30.Hv Other nonmetallic inorganics

High‐power continuous wave 690 nm AlGaInP laser‐diode arrays

J. A. Skidmore, M. A. Emanuel, R. J. Beach, W. J. Benett, B. L. Freitas, N. W. Carlson, and R. W. Solarz

Appl. Phys. Lett. 66, 1163 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.113844 (3 pages) | Cited 5 times

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High‐power diode laser arrays emitting at 690 nm have been developed for solid‐state laser pumping. The laser diode bars (fill factor ≊0.7) have been fabricated from single quantum well AlGaInP‐based heterostructures. Using silicon microchannel heatsinks, a record high 360 W/cm2 per emitting aperture is achieved under continuous wave operation.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.60.-v Laser optical systems: design and operation

Laser‐induced holographic surface relief gratings on nonlinear optical polymer films

D. Y. Kim, S. K. Tripathy, Lian Li, and J. Kumar

Appl. Phys. Lett. 66, 1166 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.113845 (3 pages) | Cited 438 times

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We report observation of holographic surface relief gratings with relatively large amplitude on a second order nonlinear optical polymeric material. Surface relief gratings on these polymer films were created upon exposure to polarized Ar+ laser beams at 488 nm without any subsequent processing steps. The surface structure of the relief gratings was investigated by atomic force microscopy. The depth of the surface relief in a typical case was 120 nm which is approximately 20% of the original film thickness. The diffraction efficiency of gold‐coated gratings was investigated as a function of wavelength and capability of recording orthogonal gratings on the same film was demonstrated. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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42.40.Eq Holographic optical elements; holographic gratings
42.70.Ln Holographic recording materials; optical storage media

Light amplification in a dye‐doped glass planar waveguide

Y. Sorek, R. Reisfeld, I. Finkelstein, and S. Ruschin

Appl. Phys. Lett. 66, 1169 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.113846 (3 pages) | Cited 45 times

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Glass waveguiding films were prepared from titania and modified silica using the sol‐gel method and doped by the laser dye rhodamine B. The guided and amplified fluorescence (pumped by a double frequency Nd‐YAG laser) was coupled out either by static grating written on the film or by a prism. The gain of the emitted superradiance was determined from the amplified spontaneous emission intensity dependence on the pumped strip length. A maximum net gain of 54 dB/cm was measured. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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42.55.Mv Dye lasers
42.60.Da Resonators, cavities, amplifiers, arrays, and rings
42.70.Ce Glasses, quartz
42.79.Gn Optical waveguides and couplers

Photoresponse and fast optical readout for a PbZrxTi1−xO3/YBa2Cu3O7−x thin‐film heterostructure capacitor

H. Lin, N. J. Wu, F. Geiger, K. Xie, and A. Ignatiev

Appl. Phys. Lett. 66, 1172 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.113847 (3 pages) | Cited 12 times

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The low‐temperature photoresponse properties for a PbZrxTi1−xO3/YBa2Cu3O7−x thin‐film heterostructure capacitor are reported. The fast optical readout effect measured for the device while the YBCO bottom electrode was superconducting indicates a fall time dependent on YBCO state. A simple equivalent circuit model confirmed that the temperature dependence of the YBCO electrode resistance is responsible for the variation of the fall time of the optical readout signal. Such heterostructures can be used to fabricate high power, radiation‐hard optical sensors which cover the whole visible range. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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85.25.Dq Superconducting quantum interference devices (SQUIDs)
85.50.-n Dielectric, ferroelectric, and piezoelectric devices
78.66.Sq Composite materials

Optical determination of chain orientation in electroluminescent polymer films

D. McBranch, I. H. Campbell, D. L. Smith, and J. P. Ferraris

Appl. Phys. Lett. 66, 1175 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.113848 (3 pages) | Cited 80 times

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We report polarized optical transmission and reflection measurements which are used to determine the orientation of polymer chains in spin‐cast thin films of soluble, electroluminescent polymers. We find that the polymer chains lie primarily in the plane of the film. This result has three important implications for polymer light emitting diodes: the electroluminescence is preferentially emitted propagating perpendicular to the polymer film; the relevant dielectric and electrical transport properties are those perpendicular to the polymer chains; and large area, uniform devices can be produced by spin casting. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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78.66.Qn Polymers; organic compounds
78.60.Fi Electroluminescence
61.41.+e Polymers, elastomers, and plastics

Amorphous Si/SiC three‐color detector with adjustable threshold

G. de Cesare, F. Irrera, F. Lemmi, and F. Palma

Appl. Phys. Lett. 66, 1178 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.113849 (3 pages) | Cited 18 times

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An adjustable threshold color detector (ATCD) is demonstrated, based on a hydrogenated amorphous silicon (a‐Si:H) and silicon–carbide (a‐SiC:H) p+‐i‐n+‐i‐n+‐i‐p+ multilayer. The ATCD is able to discriminate between blue (λ=450 nm), green (550 nm), and red (≳650 nm) illumination by varying the externally applied voltage within a few volts. The operation of the detector can be explained regarding the ATCD as three independent devices connected in series: a p+‐i‐n+, a n+‐i‐n+, and a n+‐i‐p+. The novel feature is the n+‐i‐n+ cell. It acts as a short circuit under strong illumination, whereas in dark it is equivalent to two low quality back‐to‐back diodes which introduce a shift in the threshold in the photocurrent detection. Thanks to the large number of physical parameters such as layer thickness and band gap the ATCD appears extremely versatile. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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85.60.Gz Photodetectors (including infrared and CCD detectors)
73.50.Pz Photoconduction and photovoltaic effects
78.66.Jg Amorphous semiconductors; glasses

Threshold dependence of laser‐induced optical breakdown on pulse duration

M. H. Niemz

Appl. Phys. Lett. 66, 1181 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.113850 (3 pages) | Cited 25 times

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A model for optical breakdown is presented, that takes the effects of avalanche ionization, electron–ion recombination, and electron diffusion into account. By assuming a rectangular temporal shape of the laser pulse, an analytical solution of the threshold parameters can be given. Especially, a square root dependence of the energy density on the pulse duration is found for pulse duration values between roughly 4 ps and 8 μs. The theory explains the results of several previous experiments investigating threshold parameters for a variety of target materials. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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61.80.Ba Ultraviolet, visible, and infrared radiation effects (including laser radiation)
79.20.Ds Laser-beam impact phenomena

High saturation behavior of the four‐wave mixing signal in semiconductor amplifiers

A. Mecozzi, A. D’Ottavi, F. Cara Romeo, P. Spano, R. Dall’Ara, G. Guekos, and J. Eckner

Appl. Phys. Lett. 66, 1184 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.113851 (3 pages) | Cited 12 times

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We show by a simple model that, in semiconductor amplifiers, the functional dependence of the four‐wave mixing signal on the output power of pump and probe depends on the underlying optical nonlinearity. The observation, at different pump‐probe detunings, of a different dependence of the conjugate power on pump and probe output permits the identification of the dominant optical nonlinearity at a given detuning. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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42.65.Jx Beam trapping, self-focusing and defocusing; self-phase modulation
42.65.Ky Frequency conversion; harmonic generation, including higher-order harmonic generation
78.47.-p Spectroscopy of solid state dynamics

Surface enhanced Raman scattering on silver grating: Optimized antennalike gain of the stokes signal of 104

I. Baltog, N. Primeau, R. Reinisch, and J. L. Coutaz

Appl. Phys. Lett. 66, 1187 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.113852 (3 pages) | Cited 15 times

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Using a silver grating of variable groove depth overcoated by a thin film of copper phthalocyanine, we measured an increase of the Raman efficiency of 104 as compared to the flat case (copper phthalocyanine on a flat silver surface). This effect is due to the resonant excitation of delocalized surface plasmons. The value of 104 corresponds to an optimum groove depth of the grating which acts as a high gain directive antenna when surface plasmons resonance is achieved at the Stokes frequency. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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78.30.Jw Organic compounds, polymers
73.20.Mf Collective excitations (including excitons, polarons, plasmons and other charge-density excitations)
78.66.Qn Polymers; organic compounds

Acoustic generation in crystalline silicon with femtosecond optical pulses

O. B. Wright and V. E. Gusev

Appl. Phys. Lett. 66, 1190 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.113853 (3 pages) | Cited 20 times

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Volume contraction in bulk silicon crystals is observed on excitation with femtosecond visible optical pulses. The surface deformation and generated acoustic strain are measured using detection based on both probe beam reflectivity changes and probe beam deflection. The contraction is explained by the dominant electronic contribution to the strain from excitation of electron‐hole pairs, which swamps the thermoelastic expansion. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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65.40.De Thermal expansion; thermomechanical effects
62.50.-p High-pressure effects in solids and liquids
78.47.-p Spectroscopy of solid state dynamics

High‐power radio frequency generation in a hollow‐cathode discharge

D. Arbel, Z. Bar‐Lev, J. Felsteiner, A. Rosenberg, and Ya. Z. Slutsker

Appl. Phys. Lett. 66, 1193 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.113854 (3 pages) | Cited 12 times

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High‐power rf oscillations are obtained in a resistive load installed in the external electrical circuit of a low‐pressure magnetic‐field‐free hollow‐cathode discharge. These intense rf oscillations have been shown to be due to a collisionless instability of the cathode sheath. A very simple device based on this effect is shown to serve as a convenient and powerful rf oscillator. Typical results first achieved without any optimization, for frequencies of 20–30 MHz and load resistances of several tens of ohms, are as follows: power of about 5 kW and efficiency ∼25%. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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52.75.-d Plasma devices
52.80.Hc Glow; corona
84.30.Ng Oscillators, pulse generators, and function generators

High brightness electron beam produced by a ferroelectric cathode

B. Jiang, G. Kirkman, and N. Reinhardt

Appl. Phys. Lett. 66, 1196 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.113855 (3 pages) | Cited 24 times

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We report experimental measurements of a high brightness electron beam produced by a ferroelectric cathode. Up to 36 A of current (10 A/cm2) were obtained at a voltage of 22.5 kV. Electron beam emission was obtained with a dc voltage held between the cathode and anode, and a gate pulse of 1–2 kV applied across the sample. The beam normalized emittance was measured at 10 kV to be 5 mm mrad with a normalized beam brightness of 1.2×1011 A/m2 rad2. This value of beam brightness exceeds that of thermionic cathodes. The ferroelectric cathode emission is found to exceed that of a thermionic cathode using the same geometry. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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79.70.+q Field emission, ionization, evaporation, and desorption
85.50.-n Dielectric, ferroelectric, and piezoelectric devices
84.47.+w Vacuum tubes
41.75.Fr Electron and positron beams

Transformation of C60 fullerenes into a superhard form of carbon at moderate pressure

M. E. Kozlov, M. Hirabayashi, K. Nozaki, M. Tokumoto, and H. Ihara

Appl. Phys. Lett. 66, 1199 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.113856 (3 pages) | Cited 59 times

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A very hard and conducting form of carbon has been obtained from pure C60 fullerenes, as well as its mixture with aluminium at nonhydrostatic pressures of 2.6–3 GPa and a temperature of 700 °C. The hardness of the material is more than 4000 kg/mm2. Its electrical conductivity is about 100 Ω−1 cm−1 and is weakly dependent on temperature in the range 4.2–300 K. X‐ray diffraction and Raman measurements show lack of the long‐range crystalline order in the transformed material. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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61.46.-w Structure of nanoscale materials
62.50.-p High-pressure effects in solids and liquids
64.70.K- Solid-solid transitions

Effect of high pretilt angle for anchoring strength in nematic liquid crystal on rubbed polyimide surface containing trifluoromethyl moieties

Dae‐Shik Seo and Shunsuke Kobayashi

Appl. Phys. Lett. 66, 1202 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.113236 (3 pages) | Cited 25 times

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The effects of high pretilt angle are investigated on the polar anchoring energy of the nematic liquid crystal (NLC), 5CB, on rubbed polyimide (PI) films containing trifluoromethyl moieties. The pretilt angle of 5CB rapidly increases up to about 45° with the rubbing strength (RS). Also, the polar anchoring energy of 5CB initially increases with the RS for weak rubbing and then decreases. From these results, we determined the relationship between the pretilt angle and the anchoring energy on rubbed PI films. We suggest that the polar anchoring energy of 5CB with a high pretilt angle is very small because of the combination of the microsurface excluded volume effect and the van der Waals interaction between the LC molecules and the substrate surface on weakly rubbed PI films containing trifluoromethyl moeities. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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61.30.-v Liquid crystals

Frictional heat‐stimulated exo‐electron emission from alumina sliding surfaces

H. Ohuchi and Y. Enomoto

Appl. Phys. Lett. 66, 1205 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.113237 (3 pages) | Cited 4 times

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A new method has been developed to measure exo‐electron emissions stimulated by frictional heating for a ball‐on‐disk sliding where a tungsten carbide was biased at +15 V dc to collect exo‐electrons emitted from a γ‐irradiated hot‐pressed alumina disk. Exo‐electron emission’s signals were detected above a certain critical velocity when the contact surface was frictionally heated to a critical temperature of 250 °C and emitted exo‐electrons. Sliding temperatures at any conditions of load and velocity were thus estimated using the temperature calculation program M. F. Ashby, J. Abulawi, and H. S. Kong [T‐MAPS Background Reading and User Manual, Cambridge University Engineering Department (Cambridge University, London, 1992); Tribology Trans. 34, 577 (1991)]. This method provides a versatile method of measuring the sliding temperature of ceramics. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.  
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68.35.-p Solid surfaces and solid-solid interfaces: structure and energetics
79.75.+g Exoelectron emission
46.55.+d Tribology and mechanical contacts

Structural study of defects induced during current injection to II–VI blue light emitter

S. Tomiya, E. Morita, M. Ukita, H. Okuyama, S. Itoh, K. Nakano, and A. Ishibashi

Appl. Phys. Lett. 66, 1208 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.113238 (3 pages) | Cited 40 times

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We have carried out structural studies of nonluminescent areas developed by current injection in ZnMgSSe alloy‐based II–VI blue light emitting diodes by electroluminescence topography and transmission electron microscopy. The nonradiative regions, which spread out in the 〈100〉 direction during current injection, consist of a high density of dislocation dipoles and dislocation loops. The source of these defects is the preexisting stacking faults originating at the substrate/epilayer interface. The dipoles themselves are aligned along both of the 〈110〉 directions lying in the {111} plane. Their Burgers vectors were of the type (a/2)〈011〉 inclined at 45° to the (001) junction plane. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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68.55.Ln Defects and impurities: doping, implantation, distribution, concentration, etc.
61.72.Ff Direct observation of dislocations and other defects (etch pits, decoration, electron microscopy, x-ray topography, etc.)
78.60.Fi Electroluminescence
85.60.Jb Light-emitting devices

Air stability of single crystal Rb1C60 from infrared reflectivity measurements

R. Winkler, T. Pichler, and H. Kuzmany

Appl. Phys. Lett. 66, 1211 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.113239 (3 pages) | Cited 14 times

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Infrared reflectivity was measured in situ from single phase layers of Rb1C60 with a thickness of about 4 μm on a {111} face and of about 0.5 μm on a {100} face of C60 single crystals. The fcc→orthorhombic phase transition was traced by a splitting of the F1u (4) mode into three lines within a temperature range of 2° at 404/415 K for a cooling/heating cycle, respectively. The reflectivity spectra remained unchanged after exposing the orthorhombic Rb1C60 to air. Even the fcc phase appears to be vibrationally stable in air up to at least 450 K. The conductivity of the orthorhombic phase shows a weakly activated temperature dependence. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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61.46.-w Structure of nanoscale materials
64.70.K- Solid-solid transitions
78.30.Hv Other nonmetallic inorganics
74.70.Wz Carbon-based superconductors

Hillock formation during electromigration in Cu and Al thin films: Three‐dimensional grain growth

A. Gladkikh, Y. Lereah, E. Glickman, M. Karpovski, A. Palevski, and J. Schubert

Appl. Phys. Lett. 66, 1214 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.113240 (2 pages) | Cited 13 times

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The evolution of microstructure in Al and Cu thin film lines during electromigration has been studied using a transmission electron microscopy. Grain boundary migration was found to be critically involved in the electromigration induced hillock formation that can be described as a three‐dimensional growth of a single grain. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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66.30.Qa Electromigration
61.72.Mm Grain and twin boundaries
66.30.Lw Diffusion of other defects

Structural changes induced by hydrogen absorption in palladium and palladium–ruthenium alloys

A. L. Cabrera, Erie Morales L., J. Hasen, and Ivan K. Schuller

Appl. Phys. Lett. 66, 1216 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.113241 (3 pages) | Cited 6 times

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The structural changes in Pd and Pd–Ru alloys induced by the repeated absorption–desorption of hydrogen have been studied. It is found that absorption–desorption cycles produce structural changes in Pd whereas the addition of small amounts of Ru inhibits these hydrogen‐induced changes. The experimental results show that bulk hydrogen absorption occurs in Pd, while hydrogen surface adsorption becomes dominant over bulk absorption, in the Pd–Ru alloy. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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61.72.up Other materials
82.65.+r Surface and interface chemistry; heterogeneous catalysis at surfaces
68.03.Fg Evaporation and condensation of liquids
68.43.Mn Adsorption kinetics

Structure characteristics and Curie temperature of magnesium diffused lithium niobate single‐crystal substrates

Wenxiu Que, Liangying Zhang, and Xi Yao

Appl. Phys. Lett. 66, 1219 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.113242 (3 pages) | Cited 5 times

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A Mg‐ion indiffusion process was applied to the lithium niobate single‐crystal substrates deposited with magnesium oxide thin film. By means of x‐ray diffraction analysis and differential thermal analysis, we find that the magnesium diffused layer exhibits the crystal structure of an unknown compound of the Mg‐Li‐Nb‐O ternary system. It is proposed, that this unknown compound and MgNb2O6 are the real sources for the Mg‐ion indiffusion. The changes in Curie temperature with diffusion parameters such as diffusion temperature, diffusion times, and the thickness of magnesium oxide film are noted. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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66.30.J- Diffusion of impurities
42.70.Nq Other nonlinear optical materials; photorefractive and semiconductor materials
77.84.Ek Niobates and tantalates
77.84.Cg PZT ceramics and other titanates

Normally on GaAs/AlAs multiple‐quantum well Fabry–Perot transmission modulator with ON/OFF contrast ratios ≳7.4

Chih‐Hsiang Lin, K. W. Goossen, K. Sadra, J. M. Meese, and Chun‐Jen Weng

Appl. Phys. Lett. 66, 1222 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.113243 (3 pages)

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A normal‐incident normally on GaAs/AlAs multiple‐quantum well Fabry–Perot transmission modulator is reported. The fabricated modulator achieves ON/OFF transmittance changes larger than 30% and ON/OFF contrast ratios larger than 7.4 at the wavelength of 842.5 nm with a reverse bias voltage of 9 V. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.  
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42.79.Hp Optical processors, correlators, and modulators
78.66.Fd III-V semiconductors

Effects of chemical composition on the electrical properties of NO‐nitrided SiO2

M. Bhat, L. K. Han, D. Wristers, J. Yan, D. L. Kwong, and J. Fulford

Appl. Phys. Lett. 66, 1225 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.113244 (3 pages) | Cited 60 times

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The impact of nitrogen (N) concentration and distribution on the electrical and reliability properties of rapid‐thermally NO‐annealed oxides is studied. The use of NO‐annealing of thermally grown SiO2 provides an excellent way to isolate the effects of N, since this method allows for the incorporation of varying N profiles in the oxide without a simultaneous increase in dielectric thickness. Results show that the electrical properties of the dielectric under gate and substrate Fowler–Nordheim injection are highly sensitive to the N profile in the dielectric. While interface endurance (ΔDit) is seen to improve monotonically with increasing N concentrations for both +Vg and −Vg, the same is not observed for charge‐to‐breakdown (QBD) properties. It is found that although QBD improves with NO nitridation under +Vg, it shows a turnaround behavior under −Vg, i.e., for a 10‐s NO‐annealed oxide the QBD value is improved over control oxide while further nitridation is seen to degrade QBD under −Vg. The presence of bulk N and the nonuniform N distribution in the dielectric is responsible for this behavior. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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73.61.Ng Insulators
73.40.Qv Metal-insulator-semiconductor structures (including semiconductor-to-insulator)
77.55.-g Dielectric thin films

Ultrafast characterization of an in‐plane gate transistor integrated with photoconductive switches

K. Ogawa, J. Allam, N. de B. Baynes, J. R. A. Cleaver, T. Mishima, and I. Ohbu

Appl. Phys. Lett. 66, 1228 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.113245 (3 pages) | Cited 10 times

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An in‐plane gate field‐effect transistor is characterized by ultrafast electro‐optic sampling. The transistor is monolithically integrated with photoconductive switches in coplanar waveguide and <0.5 ps measurement time resolution is achieved. The gate‐drain capacitance of the transistor is obtained as 1.8 fF at zero drain voltage from displacement current transients. The gate‐drain capacitance is dominated by parasitic capacitance and the intrinsic gate‐drain capacitance is estimated as less than 0.2 fF. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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85.30.Tv Field effect devices
85.30.De Semiconductor-device characterization, design, and modeling
78.47.-p Spectroscopy of solid state dynamics
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