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29 May 1995

Volume 66, Issue 22, pp. 2929-3071

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Optically pumped CdZnSe/ZnSe blue‐green vertical cavity surface emitting lasers

P. D. Floyd, J. L. Merz, H. Luo, J. K. Furdyna, Toshiya Yokogawa, and Yoichi Yamada

Appl. Phys. Lett. 66, 2929 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.114232 (3 pages) | Cited 2 times

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We describe the fabrication and operation of vertical cavity surface emitting layers by pulsed optical pumping. The structure consists of a vertical cavity resonator with SiO2/SiN distributed Bragg reflectors and a CdZnSe/ZnSe strained‐layer superlattice active region. The emission spectra rapidly narrow to full width at half‐maximum of 7 Å and the emission intensity increases by over two orders of magnitude, indicating stimulated emission. Lasing is observed at thresholds of ≊44 kW/cm2 at temperatures up to 30 K with lasing wavelength near 488 nm. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.60.-v Laser optical systems: design and operation

Resonant modes and laser spectrum of microdisk lasers

N. C. Frateschi and A. F. J. Levi

Appl. Phys. Lett. 66, 2932 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.114233 (3 pages) | Cited 30 times

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A theory for quantitative analysis of microdisk laser emission spectra is presented. Conformal mapping is used to determine the radial and azimuthal eigenvalues and eigenvectors corresponding to leaky optical modes in the disk. The results are compared with experimental data obtained from a 0.8 μm radius InGaAs/InGaAsP quantum well microdisk laser. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.60.Da Resonators, cavities, amplifiers, arrays, and rings

Traverse electric mode characteristics in a cylinder waveguide with a periodic dielectric cladding

Er‐Xuan Ping

Appl. Phys. Lett. 66, 2935 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.114234 (3 pages)

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The transverse electric mode characteristics in a cylinder waveguide with a periodic dielectric cladding have been analytically studied. The periodic dielectric cladding induces band structures in the characteristics and enhances the confinement of the electromagnetic energy in the core compared to a cylinder waveguide with a uniform cladding. Potential applications based on the characteristics are discussed in optical communications and photonics. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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42.79.Gn Optical waveguides and couplers
41.20.Jb Electromagnetic wave propagation; radiowave propagation

Kramers–Kronig relations in nonlinear optics

L. Kador

Appl. Phys. Lett. 66, 2938 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.114235 (2 pages) | Cited 5 times

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In the vicinity of the phase‐matching angle of second‐order nonlinear optical crystals, the fundamental light wave experiences an intensity‐dependent phase shift which is connected with the effective attenuation due to second‐harmonic generation. It is demonstrated that in the limit of weak pump depletion, the Kramers–Kronig relations can be used to derive a simple analytical expression for the phase shift as a function of the phase‐mismatch angle. For certain mismatch angles, a large phase shift occurs without any attenuation. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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42.65.Ky Frequency conversion; harmonic generation, including higher-order harmonic generation
78.20.Bh Theory, models, and numerical simulation

Passive Q switching of the Er3+:Y3Al5O12 laser at 1.64 μm

Marly B. Camargo, Robert D. Stultz, and Milton Birnbaum

Appl. Phys. Lett. 66, 2940 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.114236 (3 pages) | Cited 3 times

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Saturable‐absorber Q switching of an erbium‐doped Y3Al5O12 (YAG) laser at 1.64 μm using U2+:SrF2 and U2+:CaF2 was demonstrated. The Er:YAG was longitudinally pumped using a free‐running 1.534 μm Er:glass laser. Q switched 1.64 μm pulses of 1.7 mJ and 25 ns pulse widths were obtained. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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42.55.Rz Doped-insulator lasers and other solid state lasers
42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes

Harmonic blue light generation in bulk periodically poled LiTaO3

Kiminori Mizuuchi and Kazuhisa Yamamoto

Appl. Phys. Lett. 66, 2943 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.114237 (3 pages) | Cited 48 times

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Second‐harmonic generation in a LiTaO3 periodically poled by electric field is presented. The side growth of the domain‐inverted region during the poling was found to be suppressed using selective proton exchange. Utilizing this technique, a first‐order periodic domain inversion having uniform periodicity was realized over interaction length of 10 mm in a 300‐μm thick LiTaO3 substrate. A 3.8 mW of harmonic blue light was generated for a conversion efficiency of 1.27% in a single pass through the periodically domain‐inverted structure. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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42.65.Ky Frequency conversion; harmonic generation, including higher-order harmonic generation
42.70.Nq Other nonlinear optical materials; photorefractive and semiconductor materials

Self‐aligned hybrid integration of semiconductor lasers with micromachined micro‐optics for optoelectronic packaging

L. Y. Lin, S. S. Lee, K. S. J. Pister, and M. C. Wu

Appl. Phys. Lett. 66, 2946 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.114238 (3 pages) | Cited 3 times

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Novel self‐aligned hybrid integration of semiconductor lasers with three‐dimensional micro‐optical components has been demonstrated. The self‐alignment structures are fabricated integrally with other three‐dimensional micro‐optical elements such as micro‐Fresnel lenses, mirrors, and gratings on a single Si chip by surface micromachining technology. The Si substrate serves as a free‐space micro‐optical bench for active and passive optoelectronic components. A divergent beam emitted from an edge‐emitting semiconductor laser has been successfully collimated by the integrated micro‐Fresnel lens. The integration scheme offers a new approach for optoelectronic packaging and a new technology platform for integrating complete free‐space micro‐optical system on a single chip. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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42.82.-m Integrated optics
42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes

Edge‐emitting quantum well laser with Bragg reflectors

F. Yang, P. Blood, and J. S. Roberts

Appl. Phys. Lett. 66, 2949 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.114239 (3 pages) | Cited 7 times

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We have fabricated edge‐emitting GaAs/AlGaAs quantum well lasers in which the outer cladding layers have been replaced by multilayer Bragg reflectors. The reflectance peak spans the intrinsic spontaneous emission spectrum of the wells and there are no allowed vertical cavity modes within this spectrum. Compared with an equivalent alloy structure the threshold current of these lasers is reduced by 25%. This is due to a reduction in the spontaneous recombination current rather than an increase in internal efficiency. Studies of spontaneous emission normal to the sample surface show that the emission intensity is significantly reduced. We suggest that the threshold current is reduced by reduction in the spontaneous recombination rate due to a combination of inhibition of the emission and photon recycling. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.60.-v Laser optical systems: design and operation

Room temperature persistent spectra hole burning in Sm2+‐doped silicate glasses prepared by the sol‐gel process

Masayuki Nogami, Yoshihiro Abe, Kazuyuki Hirao, and D. H. Cho

Appl. Phys. Lett. 66, 2952 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.114240 (3 pages) | Cited 74 times

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Persistent spectra hole burning is observed at room temperature in the excitation spectrum for the 7F0→5D0 transition of the Sm2+ ions that are doped in aluminosilicate glass. Glass having the composition of Sm2+‐doped Al2O3⋅9SiO2 has been prepared by the sol‐gel processing of metal alkoxides and the reaction with H2 gas at 800 °C. Sol‐gel derived glass enables Sm to be doped in the Sm2+ state of which the 4f6 (7F0)→4f55d band does not overlap with the 5D0→7F0 line. The hole width and depth, which are burned by the DCM dye laser, are ∼15 cm−1 and ∼10% of the total intensity, respectively, at 20 °C. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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42.70.Ce Glasses, quartz
78.55.Hx Other solid inorganic materials

Novel power switch using oblique incidence to a nonlinear slab

Hwei‐Yuan Liu and Way‐Seen Wang

Appl. Phys. Lett. 66, 2955 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.114241 (3 pages)

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The waveguiding characteristics of a novel power switch with one input and n outputs (1×n) using oblique incidence to a nonlinear slab is proposed. With a proper incident optical power, the emitted soliton in the nonlinear slab can be efficiently directed to any waveguide in a array of n waveguides. For digital signal switching application, the number n can be increased simply by increasing the slab thickness. Moreover, it is found that the soliton offsets calculated by Snell’s law with an index obtained by averaging over the index distribution are in good agreement with those calculated by the beam propagation method. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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42.79.Ta Optical computers, logic elements, interconnects, switches; neural networks
42.65.Pc Optical bistability, multistability, and switching, including local field effects

High quality AIN and GaN epilayers grown on (00⋅1) sapphire, (100), and (111) silicon substrates

P. Kung, A. Saxler, X. Zhang, D. Walker, T. C. Wang, I. Ferguson, and M. Razeghi

Appl. Phys. Lett. 66, 2958 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.114242 (3 pages) | Cited 80 times

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The growth of high quality AlN and GaN thin films on basal plane sapphire, (100), and (111) silicon substrates is reported using low pressure metalorganic chemical vapor deposition. X‐ray rocking curve linewidths of about 100 and 30 arcsec were obtained for AlN and GaN on sapphire, respectively. Room‐temperature optical transmission and photoluminescence (of GaN) measurements confirmed the high quality of the films. The luminescence at 300 and 77 K of the GaN films grown on basal plane sapphire, (100), and (111) silicon was compared. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)

Nanometer‐scale recording on chalcogenide films with an atomic force microscope

H. Kado and T. Tohda

Appl. Phys. Lett. 66, 2961 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.114243 (2 pages) | Cited 46 times

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A nanometer‐scale recording technique has been demonstrated on an amorphous GeSb2Te4 film with an atomic force microscope (AFM). Data are recorded by locally changing the electrical property of the film with a conductive AFM probe. The conductance of the film is able to be increased more than one hundred times by applying a pulse voltage between the probe and the film. The recorded data are read by detecting the change of the conductance with the probe. The simultaneous measurement of the topographic and conductance images with the AFM shows that the surface topography of the recorded regions is not changed during the recording process. The smallest recorded region is 10 nm in diameter, which corresponds to a data storage density of 1 Tbit/cm2. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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68.37.Ef Scanning tunneling microscopy (including chemistry induced with STM)
68.37.Ps Atomic force microscopy (AFM)
68.37.Rt Magnetic force microscopy (MFM)
68.37.Uv Near-field scanning microscopy and spectroscopy
81.07.-b Nanoscale materials and structures: fabrication and characterization
81.16.-c Methods of micro- and nanofabrication and processing
85.35.-p Nanoelectronic devices
73.61.Jc Amorphous semiconductors; glasses

Evidence of M‐type oxygen octahedral rotations in the high‐temperature rhombohedral ferroelectric phase region of Pb(Zr0.95Ti0.05)O3

Z. Xu, Xunhu Dai, Jie‐Fang Li, and Dwight Viehland

Appl. Phys. Lett. 66, 2963 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.114244 (3 pages) | Cited 10 times

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Evidence of M‐type oxygen octahedral rotations has been observed by transmission electron microscopy in the high‐temperature rhombohedral ferroelectric (FER(HT)) state of Pb(Zr0.95Ti0.05)O3. 1/2{110} superlattice reflections were found to develop on cooling through the dielectric maximum. With further cooling (accompanying a ferroelectric‐antiferroelectric transformation), a gradual transition from 1/2{110} to 1/2{111} reflections was observed. We believe this gradual transition is due to a transformation from M‐type to R‐type octahedral tilts on cooling. Lattice imaging in the FER(HT) state at room temperature revealed a one dimensionality in the 〈110〉 structural modulations. The size of the ordered regions was ∼50–100 Å. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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68.37.Hk Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) (including EBIC)
68.37.Lp Transmission electron microscopy (TEM)
77.80.B- Phase transitions and Curie point
77.84.Ek Niobates and tantalates
77.84.Cg PZT ceramics and other titanates

Thermal‐wave imaging of hydrogen in metals and alloys

G. Mussati, E. Sala, S. Maffi, G. Razzini, and L. Peraldo Bicelli

Appl. Phys. Lett. 66, 2966 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.114245 (3 pages)

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Ex situ photoacoustic thermal‐wave imaging of hydrogen electropermeated in a titanium and stainless steel (AISI 304) foil has been performed. Both the magnitude and phase of the complex amplitude of the photoacoustic signal have been investigated. The results show a new phase (TiH2) in the case of titanium and typical blisters in the case of stainless steel; both could be imaged deeply below the sample surface. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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61.72.up Other materials
43.35.Sx Acoustooptical effects, optoacoustics, acoustical visualization, acoustical microscopy, and acoustical holography

Effect of coherency stresses on the hardness of epitaxial Fe(001)/Pt(001) multilayers

B. J. Daniels, W. D. Nix, and B. M. Clemens

Appl. Phys. Lett. 66, 2969 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.114246 (3 pages) | Cited 7 times

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The effect of coherency stresses on the hardness of epitaxial, sputter‐deposited Fe(001)/Pt(001) multilayers was investigated. Coherency stresses were over 2 GPa for films with a bilayer period, Λ, of 44 Å and relaxed by more than a factor of 10 for films with Λ=76 and 121 Å. Since the hardness of these films was constant at approximately 9 GPa over this range of Λ, we conclude that the contribution of coherency stresses to the enhanced hardness is small for this system. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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68.35.Gy Mechanical properties; surface strains
68.60.Bs Mechanical and acoustical properties

Postfabrication native‐oxide improvement of the reliability of visible‐spectrum AlGaAs–In(AlGa)P p‐n heterostructure diodes

T. A. Richard, N. Holonyak, F. A. Kish, M. R. Keever, and C. Lei

Appl. Phys. Lett. 66, 2972 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.114247 (3 pages) | Cited 13 times

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Data are presented on the electrical behavior and the reliability of postfabrication native‐oxide‐passivated visible‐spectrum AlGaAs–In(AlGa)P p‐n heterostructure light emitting diodes (LEDs). The LEDs are oxidized (H2O+N2, 500 °C, 1 h) after metallization, thus sealing all exposed AlGaAs crystal at cracks, fissures, and edges against atmospheric hydrolysis without degrading their light‐output characteristics. The current–voltage (I–V) characteristics of the oxide‐passivated LEDs are shown to exhibit normal p‐n diode behavior (∼1.9 V at 20 mA). The reliability of the oxidized devices in high‐humidity conditions is greatly improved compared to otherwise identical unoxidized LEDs. The latter degrade to less than 50% of initial output power at 1500 h accelerated life test in high‐humidity environments, compared to the oxidized LEDs not degrading noticeably in output power after 2500 h. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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85.60.Jb Light-emitting devices
81.65.-b Surface treatments

Direct current conduction properties of sputtered Pt/(Ba0.7Sr0.3)TiO3/Pt thin films capacitors

W. Y. Hsu, J. D. Luttmer, R. Tsu, S. Summerfelt, M. Bedekar, T. Tokumoto, and J. Nulman

Appl. Phys. Lett. 66, 2975 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.114248 (3 pages) | Cited 33 times

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Current flow through Pt/(Ba0.7Sr0.3)TiO3/Pt stack consists of both polarization current and electronic leakage current, which were separated by monitoring the discharging current when applied voltage was turned off. Electronic current comes from electrical field enhanced Schottky emission at the electrode–dielectric interface, and dominates the current flow at high electric field. At low electric field, polarization current prevails. The voltage and time dependence of the polarization current can be modeled by a distribution of Debye‐type relaxations. The relaxation time and capacitance derived from current–time measurements were applied to simulate the current–voltage behavior, where good fitting to experimental result was obtained. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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77.55.-g Dielectric thin films
73.40.Rw Metal-insulator-metal structures
84.32.Tt Capacitors

Room‐temperature photoluminescence of GemSinGem structures

M. Gail, G. Abstreiter, J. Olajos, J. Engvall, H. Grimmeiss, H. Kibbel, and H. Presting

Appl. Phys. Lett. 66, 2978 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.114249 (3 pages) | Cited 9 times

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Photoluminescence of pseudomorphic Ge wells grown by conventional molecular beam epitaxy on Si substrate is studied. The samples consist of p‐type doped Gem–Sin–Gem structures embedded in a Si1−xGex alloy. The luminescence lines shift to lower energy with increasing m, the observed band gap agrees with subband calculation based on an effective mass approximation. The temperature stability of the luminescence depends on m. In the case of m=4 the luminescence persists up to room temperature with only small reduction in intensity. The activation energies determined from the exponential drop of luminescence intensity agree with band discontinuities in the sample structures. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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78.66.Li Other semiconductors
78.55.Hx Other solid inorganic materials

Effect of interface composition and growth order on the mixed anion InAs/GaSb valence band offset

M. W. Wang, D. A. Collins, T. C. McGill, R. W. Grant, and R. M. Feenstra

Appl. Phys. Lett. 66, 2981 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.114250 (3 pages) | Cited 18 times

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We have used x‐ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) to measure the dependence of the InAs/GaSb valence band offset on both interface composition and growth order. Molecular beam epitaxy was used to grow InAs‐on‐GaSb and GaSb‐on‐InAs interfaces with both InSb‐like and GaAs‐like interface compositions. Analysis of XPS core level separations showed no dependence of the valence band offset on interface composition; however, a 90 meV increase in the valence band offset was observed for InAs grown on GaSb compared to GaSb grown on InAs. This difference is attributed to the extended nature of the InAs‐on‐GaSb interface. Results from analysis of an intentionally extended GaSb‐on‐InAs interface were consistent with this conclusion. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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73.20.At Surface states, band structure, electron density of states
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology

1 Gb/s Si high quantum efficiency monolithically integrable λ=0.88 μm detector

B. F. Levine, J. D. Wynn, F. P. Klemens, and G. Sarusi

Appl. Phys. Lett. 66, 2984 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.114251 (3 pages) | Cited 11 times

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We propose and demonstrate a 1 Gb/s high quantum efficiency Si MSM metal‐semiconductor‐metal detector which is complementary metal‐oxide semiconductor compatible. The detector absorbs over 50% of the light entering the active layer at a wavelength of λ=0.88 μm. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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42.79.Pw Imaging detectors and sensors
42.82.-m Integrated optics
85.60.Gz Photodetectors (including infrared and CCD detectors)

Influence of carrier kinetics on subpicosecond gain dynamics in diode laser amplifiers

S. Schuster and H. Haug

Appl. Phys. Lett. 66, 2987 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.114252 (3 pages) | Cited 3 times

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For a bulk GaAs semiconductor laser amplifier the evolution of the optical gain after a 200 fs pulse excitation is calculated by including carrier–carrier and LO‐phonon–carrier scattering in terms of the Boltzmann collision integrals. For an injected light pulse in the gain (absorption) region the optical gain shows a transient decrease (increase) followed by relaxation towards a lower (higher) level. Around the transparency point the broadening of the optical transition due to the decay of the induced interband polarization yields a transient decrease of the optical gain although the carrier density does not change. This behavior agrees qualitatively well with measurements of M. P. Kesler and E. P. Ippen [Appl. Phys. Lett. 51, 1765 (1987)]. The temperature relaxation after the excitation is examined. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.  
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42.60.Da Resonators, cavities, amplifiers, arrays, and rings
42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
78.47.-p Spectroscopy of solid state dynamics

Biased‐voltage controlled thinning for bonded silicon‐on‐insulator wafers

Qing‐An Huang, Jun‐Ning Chen, Xing‐Hua Fu, Hui‐Zhen Zhang, and Qin‐Yi Tong

Appl. Phys. Lett. 66, 2990 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.114253 (2 pages)

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A novel method for the preparation of bonded and etch‐back silicon‐on‐insulator is presented and demonstrated in which the surface of the to be thinned silicon wafer near the oxide is biased to inversion, so the bulk of this silicon wafer can be removed by anodic etching using the depletion layer as an etch stop. The high etching selectivity between the bulk silicon wafer and the depletion layer makes it possible to produce a micron/submicron‐thick active silicon layer with good thickness uniformity across a 3 in. silicon‐on‐insulator wafer. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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81.65.-b Surface treatments

Light amplification device using organic electroluminescent diode coupled with photoresponsive organic pigment film

Tadashi Katsume, Masahiro Hiramoto, and Masaaki Yokoyama

Appl. Phys. Lett. 66, 2992 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.114254 (3 pages) | Cited 13 times

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An all‐organic light amplification device was designed using organic electroluminescent diode coupled with photoresponsive organic perylene pigment film as an electron photoinjecting layer. Amplification gain of photon conversion from red to red reached 25‐folds with the assistance of the large photocurrent multiplication in a perylene film. Moreover, optical switching behavior caused by the feedback of output light to the photoresponsive layer was observed. Since the spatial pattern of light was conserved, the present device has the potential to grow into new optoelectronic devices for optical image processing. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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85.60.Jb Light-emitting devices
78.60.Fi Electroluminescence
78.66.Qn Polymers; organic compounds

Local lattice distortion relating to phosphorus antisite defect in phosphorus‐ion‐implanted GaP layer

K. Kuriyama, Takashi Kato, Satoru Tajima, Tomoharu Kato, and Sin‐ichi Takeda

Appl. Phys. Lett. 66, 2995 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.114255 (3 pages) | Cited 12 times

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The local lattice distortion relating to the phosphorus antisite defect (PGa) in the P+‐ion‐implanted GaP layer was studied using Rutherford backscattering (RBS), photoacoustic (PA), Raman scattering, and photoluminescence (PL) methods. The displacement fraction due to the excess phosphorus in 800 °C annealed samples is estimated to be ∼2×1020/cm3 by RBS channeling measurements. The slight reduction of the LO‐TO phonon frequency splitting of the annealed P+‐ion‐implanted GaP with respect to the unimplanted one indicates the presence of PGa, corresponding to x=0.0084 of Ga1−xP1+x. This is consistent with the displacement fraction estimated by RBS. A PL emission relating to PGa is observed at 716 mm (1.73 eV). © 1995 American Institute of Physics.  
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61.72.J- Point defects and defect clusters

Photoinduced intersubband transition in undoped HgCdTe multiple quantum wells

C. R. M. de Oliveira, A. M. de Paula, C. L. Cesar, L. C. West, C. Roberts, R. D. Feldman, R. F. Austin, M. N. Islam, and G. E. Marques

Appl. Phys. Lett. 66, 2998 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.114256 (3 pages) | Cited 2 times

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We present photoinduced intersubband absorption measurements in HgCdTe undoped quantum wells. The transition energies and the linewidths are well described by a full 8×8 k⋅p Kane model calculation. Also, based on this model we show that different in‐plane effective masses for the first and second electron subbands should be considered in order to properly fit the low energy side of the experimental spectra. The experimental results can be explained using the calculated intersubband oscillator strength with no exciton enhancement. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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78.47.-p Spectroscopy of solid state dynamics
78.66.Hf II-VI semiconductors
73.21.-b Electron states and collective excitations in multilayers, quantum wells, mesoscopic, and nanoscale systems
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