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13 Nov 1995

Volume 67, Issue 20, pp. 2901-3042

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Carrier collection losses in amorphous silicon and amorphous silicon–germanium alloy solar cells

A. Banerjee, X. Xu, J. Yang, and S. Guha

Appl. Phys. Lett. 67, 2975 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.114830 (3 pages) | Cited 3 times

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The carrier collection losses in amorphous silicon (a‐Si) and amorphous silicon–germanium (a‐SiGe) alloy single‐junction nip cells have been experimentally investigated by measuring the biased quantum efficiency and color (blue and red) fill factor values. The study has identified losses near the p/i junction and the bulk of the i layer. The extent of the losses have been found to be dependent on the quality and thickness of the i layer and the nature of the n‐layer surface. The results suggest a broad interrelationship between the initial film properties and deposition conditions and an inhomogeneity in the direction of film growth. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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73.40.Lq Other semiconductor-to-semiconductor contacts, p-n junctions, and heterojunctions
73.61.Jc Amorphous semiconductors; glasses
84.60.Jt Photoelectric conversion

Theory of quasiequilibrium nonlinear optical absorption in semiconductor superlattices

K.‐C. Je, T. Meier, F. Rossi, and S. W. Koch

Appl. Phys. Lett. 67, 2978 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.114831 (3 pages) | Cited 9 times

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Quasiequilibrium nonlinear optical absorption spectra are computed for semiconductor superlattices. The theory generalizes the semiconductor Bloch equations to describe anisotropic structures. The equation for the interband polarization is solved numerically and the carrier‐density dependent optical nonlinearities are computed. Starting from excitonic absorption, with increasing density exciton saturation and the development of gain is observed. The dependence of the gain spectra on structural parameters of the superlattice is discussed. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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73.21.-b Electron states and collective excitations in multilayers, quantum wells, mesoscopic, and nanoscale systems
78.66.-w Optical properties of specific thin films

Transmission electron microscopy investigation of the morphology of InP Stranski–Krastanow islands grown by metalorganic chemical vapor deposition

K. Georgsson, N. Carlsson, L. Samuelson, W. Seifert, and L. R. Wallenberg

Appl. Phys. Lett. 67, 2981 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.114832 (2 pages) | Cited 62 times

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We have used transmission electron microscopy to determine the morphology of InP Stranski–Krastanow islands in GaInP, grown by metalorganic chemical vapor deposition at 580 °C. We investigated both capped and uncapped islands. It was found that the fully developed islands have the principal shape of truncated pyramids with a hexagonal base both before and after overgrowth. The planes defining the islands are of {001}, {110}, and {111} types. The base dimensions are 40–50 nm and 55–65 nm in the [110] and [110] directions, respectively, and the height is 12–18 nm. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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68.37.Hk Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) (including EBIC)
68.37.Lp Transmission electron microscopy (TEM)
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)

Application to optical components of dielectric porous silicon multilayers

C. Mazzoleni and L. Pavesi

Appl. Phys. Lett. 67, 2983 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.114833 (3 pages) | Cited 87 times

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Narrow‐band color filters have been integrated on porous silicon layers. Distributed Bragg reflectors and Fabry–Pérot interference filters based on layered porous silicon samples are demonstrated. The effects of narrowing and tuning the porous silicon emission band are shown in structures composed by Fabry–Pérot filters integrated on top of thick porous silicon layers. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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42.79.Ci Filters, zone plates, and polarizers
78.66.Db Elemental semiconductors and insulators

Structural properties of low temperature plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposited silicon oxide films using disilane and nitrous oxide

Juho Song and G. S. Lee

Appl. Phys. Lett. 67, 2986 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.114834 (3 pages) | Cited 1 time

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The structural properties of low temperature plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposited SiO2 films using Si2H6 and N 2O have been studied. It is observed that the degree of compaction of as‐deposited SiO2 films, upon subsequent annealing, increases up to 4%. The shift of Si‐O‐Si stretching peak wave number of the as‐deposited SiO 2 films (Δω=−20 cm−1) compared to the undensified SiO 2 films is attributed to 9.4% increase in the film density, resulting in smaller Si‐O‐Si bridging bond angle of 138°. It is also believed that the high temperature annealing results in the reduction of hydroxyl containing species in the film and in turn drives the dielectric constant towards that of thermal SiO2 films. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)

Resistless high resolution optical lithography on silicon

N. Kramer, M. Niesten, and C. Schönenberger

Appl. Phys. Lett. 67, 2989 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.114835 (3 pages) | Cited 19 times

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In this letter, we report on the high resolution patterning of a silicon surface without using a resist layer. A hydrogen passivated silicon surface is chemically modified by illumination with ultraviolet light (UV, λ=350.7 nm) in air. Auger electron spectroscopy (AES) revealed that silicon oxide was formed at the illuminated areas. A light interference pattern was made on the silicon surface by two UV laser beams, oxidation occurred only at the maximum intensity, but not at the minimum. In this way oxide lines were fabricated with a width below 200 nm on a 500 nm period. The oxide lines were used as a wet etch mask to etch more than 25 nm into Si(110) without affecting the oxide. The advantage of this technique is that it is a very simple process which allows the high resolution patterning over large areas of silicon without using a resist. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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81.65.-b Surface treatments
85.40.Hp Lithography, masks and pattern transfer

Proximity gettering of transition metals in separation by implanted oxygen structures

W. Skorupa, N. Hatzopoulos, R. A. Yankov, and A. B. Danilin

Appl. Phys. Lett. 67, 2992 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.114929 (3 pages) | Cited 18 times

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The gettering behavior of Cu and Fe in ion beam synthesized silicon on insulator (SOI) material incorporating a buried oxide layer is investigated before and after the formation of deep gettering zones by either C or He implantation. Secondary ion mass spectroscopy (SIMS) analysis is employed to obtain information as to the C, O, Fe, and Cu depth distributions. It is shown that the proximity gettering approach using C and He renders the possibility of removing and stabilizing metal contaminants not only away from the near‐surface region, but also remote from the buried oxide/substrate interface to which they normally segregate in the absence of efficient implantation induced gettering sinks. C implants are found to have better gettering efficiency as they getter both Cu and Fe whereas He implants getter Cu only. In addition, the C implant dose needed to achieve one and the same gettering effect is an order of magnitude lower than the He dose. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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61.72.uf Ge and Si
61.72.Yx Interaction between different crystal defects; gettering effect
61.80.Jh Ion radiation effects

Degradation mechanism of AlGaAs/GaAs laser diodes grown on Si substrates

T. Egawa, Y. Hasegawa, T. Jimbo, and M. Umeno

Appl. Phys. Lett. 67, 2995 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.114930 (3 pages) | Cited 10 times

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We have studied the rapid degradation of the AlGaAs/GaAs single quantum well laser diodes on Si substrates grown by metalorganic chemical vapor deposition. The dislocations propagate at velocities up to ∼75 μm/h along 〈100〉 and ∼20 μm/h along 〈110〉, which cause an increase in threshold current and a decrease in differential quantum efficiency. The degraded current–voltage characteristic resulted from the defect‐assisted impurity diffusion. The degradation process occurs very rapidly due to the presence of a high density of defects and thermally induced strain. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.60.Da Resonators, cavities, amplifiers, arrays, and rings

Influence of hydrogen on chemical vapor deposition of tungsten on sputter‐deposited TiN layers

S.‐L. Zhang, R. Palmans, J. Keinonen, C. S. Petersson, and K. Maex

Appl. Phys. Lett. 67, 2998 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.114931 (3 pages) | Cited 4 times

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Tungsten (W) films are deposited on sputter‐deposited TiN adhesion layers in a cold‐wall chemical vapor deposition reactor, initiated with the deposition of a W nucleation layer by SiH4 reduction of WF6. H2 is also introduced in the reactor for some depositions. The electrical resistivity and mechanical stress of the W films are found to be dependent on the underlying TiN layers as well as on the presence of H2 during W nucleation layer deposition. A higher resistivity is obtained when the W is deposited on the TiN prepared at 250 °C than on the TiN prepared at 450 °C. For the W deposited on the low‐temperature TiN, the resistivity is reduced by adding H2 to the reactants during W nucleation layer deposition; while for the W deposited on the high‐temperature TiN, the resistivity is almost insensitive to the H2 addition. More oxygen and fluorine are found at the W–TiN interface for the W deposited on the low‐temperature TiN than on the high‐temperature TiN. Introduction of H2 to the reactants during W nucleation layer deposition reduces the concentrations of interfacial fluorine and oxygen, in agreement with thermodynamic predictions. A lower film stress is obtained for the W deposited on the high‐temperature TiN layers and/or with H2 addition. The W films become less textured when H2 is introduced to the reactants during W nucleation layer deposition. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)

Boron incorporation in Si1−xGex films grown by ultrahigh vacuum chemical vapor deposition using Si2H6 and GeH4

L. P. Chen, C. T. Chou, G. W. Huang, W. C. Tsai, and C. Y. Chang

Appl. Phys. Lett. 67, 3001 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.114932 (3 pages) | Cited 10 times

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0.1% B2H6 diluted in hydrogen is used as the p‐type dopant gas in Si1−xGex grown by ultrahigh vacuum chemical vapor deposition (UHVCVD) using Si2H6 and GeH4. The boron concentration is evaluated by secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS). The boron concentration of Si1−xGex increases with the increase of the GeH4 flow rate, that is, Ge fraction, by keeping Si2H6 and B2H6 flow rates constant. The result may be due to the increase of the vacant surface sites which is caused by the increase of the hydrogen desorption rate when a higher Ge fraction epilayer is grown. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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68.55.Ln Defects and impurities: doping, implantation, distribution, concentration, etc.
81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)

Effect of growth temperature on the electrical properties of CCl4‐doped semi‐insulating InP

Nathan F. Gardner, Quesnell J. Hartmann, Judith E. Baker, and Gregory E. Stillman

Appl. Phys. Lett. 67, 3004 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.114933 (3 pages) | Cited 6 times

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The electrical properties of semi‐insulating InP epitaxial layers grown by metalorganic chemical vapor deposition using CCl4 as a doping source have been studied as a function of the growth conditions of the material. Secondary ion mass spectrometry has been used to analyze the incorporation of impurity species in these layers. These measurements indicate that the resistivities of the CCl4‐doped InP layers increase exponentially (exceeding 1012 Ω cm) with increasing growth temperature. The incorporation of C, H, and Cl decreases in these layers. In conjunction with the dependence of the resistivity on the flow rate of the diluted CCl4 dopant during growth, these results suggest that the semi‐insulating nature of the InP layers is due to CCl4‐mediated incorporation of one or more defects during growth. It is not likely that either a deep level created by Cl or hydrogen passivation of shallow donors and acceptors is responsible for the electrical properties of this material. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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61.72.uj III-V and II-VI semiconductors
81.15.Hi Molecular, atomic, ion, and chemical beam epitaxy
71.55.Eq III-V semiconductors

Depth dependent collection functions in thin film chalcopyrite solar cells

R. Scheer, C. Knieper, and L. Stolt

Appl. Phys. Lett. 67, 3007 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.114934 (3 pages) | Cited 5 times

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Electron beam induced current experiments in the planar geometry are performed on Mo/CuInX2/CdS/ZnO thin film solar cells where X is S, Se. We measure the collection efficiency of cells as a function of the beam energy and subsequently identify the depth dependent collection function. For CuInS2 devices an effective diffusion length of 1.0±0.1 μm and a depletion layer of 0.05±0.03 μm is determined. The collection function of a CuInSe2 cell points towards a low recombination rate at the back contact and a diffusion length exceeding 3 μm. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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73.50.Gr Charge carriers: generation, recombination, lifetime, trapping, mean free paths
84.60.Jt Photoelectric conversion

Optical characterization of continuous compositional gradients in thin films by real time spectroscopic ellipsometry

Sangbo Kim and R. W. Collins

Appl. Phys. Lett. 67, 3010 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.114935 (3 pages) | Cited 14 times

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An analysis procedure for real time spectroscopic ellipsometry data is described that allows one to characterize compositional gradients in thin films prepared by continuously varying the deposition parameters. This approach provides the time evolution of (i) the instantaneous deposition rate, (ii) the surface roughness layer thickness, and (iii) the near‐surface dielectric function and composition of the film with a depth resolution as high as 7 Å. We apply the analysis to obtain the depth profile of the relative void volume fraction for an amorphous silicon‐carbon alloy film prepared by plasma‐enhanced chemical vapor deposition. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)

Theory of optical gain in ideal GaN heterostructure lasers

A. T. Meney and E. P. O’Reilly

Appl. Phys. Lett. 67, 3013 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.114936 (3 pages) | Cited 31 times

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We present gain calculations for ideal bulk GaN and 100 Å GaN quantum well laser structures. We show that due to the large electron and hole effective masses in GaN, the room‐temperature material gain characteristics of a 100 Å quantum well are a little different from those of bulk GaN up to a gain level of 1000 cm−1, and that the transparency and threshold carrier density is approximately 2.5 times that in an equivalent GaAs structure, with the radiative current density being of order eight times larger. Comparing the unstrained zinc blende and wurtzite crystal structures, we predict improved gain characteristics in the wurtzite case. The introduction of compressive strain, e.g., through pseudomorphic growth between unstrained AlGaN barriers, will benefit both crystal structures, with wurtzite remaining better than zinc blende for mismatch up to about 1.5%. Finally, we note that the gain characteristics would be further improved if it were possible to grow tensile‐strained zinc blende layers. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.60.Da Resonators, cavities, amplifiers, arrays, and rings

Deep level transient spectroscopy of InP quantum dots

S. Anand, N. Carlsson, M‐E Pistol, L. Samuelson, and W. Seifert

Appl. Phys. Lett. 67, 3016 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.114937 (3 pages) | Cited 66 times

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We report on the application of deep level transient spectroscopy to the study of electron emission from quantum dots. The results are presented for coherently grown InP dots embedded in Ga0.5In0.5P. We determine an emission activation energy of 220 meV for the one electron ground state of the dots. With increased average electron occupation in the dots we observe a systematic shift of the DLTS peak towards lower temperatures. This we interpret as being due to Coulomb charging of the dots. We extract an average Coulomb charging energy of 8–12 meV per added electron in the dot in agreement with our estimated value of 9 meV. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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73.21.-b Electron states and collective excitations in multilayers, quantum wells, mesoscopic, and nanoscale systems
73.40.Lq Other semiconductor-to-semiconductor contacts, p-n junctions, and heterojunctions

Polarization of porous silicon luminescence

S. V. Gaponenko, V. K. Kononenko, E. P. Petrov, I. N. Germanenko, A. P. Stupak, and Y. H. Xie

Appl. Phys. Lett. 67, 3019 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.114938 (3 pages) | Cited 18 times

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The polarization characteristics of light emitting porous Si films is investigated. The degree of polarization increases to well over 20% when the excitation wavelength is at the blue edge of the emission band and decreases with decreasing excitation wavelength. The steady‐state value of the degree of polarization is established in less than 1 μs. The experimental results bear qualitative agreement with a quantum‐wire model. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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73.21.-b Electron states and collective excitations in multilayers, quantum wells, mesoscopic, and nanoscale systems
78.55.Hx Other solid inorganic materials

Pulsed terahertz‐beam spectroscopy as a probe of the thermal and quantum response of YBa2Cu3O7−δ superfluid

Yongqian Liu, John F. Whitaker, Ctirad Uher, S. Y. Hou, and J. M. Phillips

Appl. Phys. Lett. 67, 3022 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.114939 (3 pages) | Cited 2 times

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Pulsed terahertz spectroscopy is used to determine the superfluid response of a YBa2Cu3O7−δ film under both thermal and optical stimulation. The coherent, time‐domain technique is used in a novel configuration to directly measure the complex conductivity of the film versus temperature and continuous‐wave laser illumination. At 0.6 Tc, the superfluid shows an identical response regardless of whether the stimulus is thermal or optical. This contrasts with the behavior of the superfluid at 0.26 Tc, where dramatic differences are observed depending on whether the sample is heated or subjected to optical illumination. It is suggested that these differences arise from an enhanced contribution due to quantum effects, and thus also from a strong temperature dependence of the quasiparticle recombination time at low temperatures. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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74.25.F- Transport properties
74.25.N- Response to electromagnetic fields
74.78.-w Superconducting films and low-dimensional structures

Effects of axial tensile and bending strains on critical currents of monoand

M. Suenaga, Y. Fukumoto, P. Haldar, T. R. Thurston, and U. Wildgrüber

Appl. Phys. Lett. 67, 3025 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.114940 (3 pages) | Cited 33 times

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Improved strain sensitivity of critical currents Ic of the multicored over the monocored (Bi,Pb)2Sr2Ca2Cu3O10–Ag tapes is shown for bending strains, but not for axial tensile strains. The improved mechanical tolerance is due, in part, to a better alignment of the Bi‐cuprate platelets achieved in the multicored tapes. Furthermore, the difference in the response to these tapes to axial tensile and bending strains is due to the difference in the precise manner in which the strains are applied to the tapes. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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84.71.Mn Superconducting wires, fibers, and tapes

Transport properties of magnetic field/liquid assisted textured YBa2Cu3O7−x thick films

J. A. Lewis and M. Wegmann

Appl. Phys. Lett. 67, 3028 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.115443 (3 pages) | Cited 2 times

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Textured YBa2Cu3O7−x thick films (thickness ≊1 mm) were fabricated by vacuum filtration in an applied magnetic field (H=7 T). Platinum (1 wt %) was incorporated to induce liquid phase‐assisted densification in films fired between 960 and 1030 °C in oxygen. The transport critical current densities (Jct) of films fired to 1030 °C exhibited nearly field insensitive behavior between H=0–3 T (H∥c‐axis) at 77 K, with Jct≊2500 A/cm2 and corresponding critical currents (Ic) of nearly 100 A at H=1 T. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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74.78.-w Superconducting films and low-dimensional structures
81.15.-z Methods of deposition of films and coatings; film growth and epitaxy

Giant magnetoresistive memory effect in Nd0.7Sr0.3MnOz films

G. C. Xiong, Q. Li, H. L. Ju, S. M. Bhagat, S. E. Lofland, R. L. Greene, and T. Venkatesan

Appl. Phys. Lett. 67, 3031 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.115444 (3 pages) | Cited 32 times

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A novel giant magnetoresistance memory effect has been observed in epitaxial Nd0.7Sr0.3MnOz thin films which have previously been found to exhibit a linear increase in conductivity on first application of magnetic field B. The resistivity of the films depends not only on the instantaneous applied field but also on the magnetic history of the sample. At T well below the temperature Tp, where the zero‐field resistivity has a peak, the film enters a high‐conductivity state (upon application of a magnetic field) which persists even when B is reduced to zero. The original ‘‘zero’’ field state is not recovered until the sample is warmed to T∼Tp. Surprisingly, the dc magnetization exhibits only a weak irreversibility while the magnetoconductivity is markedly hysteretic. A possible explanation is proposed. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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73.50.Jt Galvanomagnetic and other magnetotransport effects (including thermomagnetic effects)
75.70.-i Magnetic properties of thin films, surfaces, and interfaces

Localized heating of nickel nitride/aluminum nitride nanocomposite films for data storage

L. Maya, T. Thundat, J. R. Thompson, and R. J. Stevenson

Appl. Phys. Lett. 67, 3034 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.115445 (3 pages) | Cited 9 times

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Nickel–aluminum nitride films were prepared by reactive sputtering of a nickel aluminide plate in a nitrogen plasma. The initial product is a nanocomposite containing the nickel as the nitride, Ni3N, in aluminum nitride. Heating in vacuum to 500 °C causes selective decomposition of the thermally labile nickel nitride leaving the aluminum nitride unaffected. The nickel nanocomposite is of interest for potential applications as recording media, as are other finely divided dispersions of ferromagnetic metals in insulating matrices. The nickel–aluminum nitride nanocomposite shows a moderate coercive field of 35 Oe at 300 K and, in common with ultrafine particles of ferromagnetic materials, shows superparamagnetic behavior. The Ni3N/AlN nanocomposite was subjected to localized heating with the focused beam of an argon‐ion laser; this created features several microns in width that could be imaged with a magnetic force microscope, thus confirming its potential as a high density data storage medium. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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75.50.Tt Fine-particle systems; nanocrystalline materials
75.70.-i Magnetic properties of thin films, surfaces, and interfaces
85.70.Li Other magnetic recording and storage devices (including tapes, disks, and drums)

Electron‐electron interaction in linear arrays of small tunnel junctions

K. K. Likharev and K. A. Matsuoka

Appl. Phys. Lett. 67, 3037 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.115446 (3 pages) | Cited 20 times

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We have calculated the spatial distribution of the electrostatic potential created by an unbalanced charge q in one of the conducting electrodes of a long, uniform, linear array of small tunnel junctions. The distribution describes, in particular, the shape of a topological single‐electron soliton in such an array. An analytical solution obtained for a circular cross‐section model is compared with results of geometrical modeling of a more realistic structure with square cross section. These solutions are very close to one another, and can be reasonably approximated by a simple phenomenological expression. In contrast to the previously accepted exponential approximation, the new result describes the crossover between the linear change of the potential near the center of the soliton to the unscreened Coulomb potential far from the center, with an unexpected ‘‘hump’’ near the crossover point. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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73.40.Gk Tunneling
85.30.De Semiconductor-device characterization, design, and modeling

Experimental apparatus for determining charge exchange between hydrogen and hydrocarbon groups in the hot filament deposition of diamond

R. I. Cherry and T. Whitmore

Appl. Phys. Lett. 67, 3040 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.115447 (3 pages) | Cited 4 times

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The charge balance in the hot filament method of depositing diamond is explored using a novel experimental arrangement. A correlation between ion activity and the growth of diamond is drawn. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)
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