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7 Aug 1995

Volume 67, Issue 6, pp. 733-874

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Optical phonons of hexagonal and cubic GaN studied by infrared transmission and Raman spectroscopy

M. Giehler, M. Ramsteiner, O. Brandt, H. Yang, and K. H. Ploog

Appl. Phys. Lett. 67, 733 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.115208 (3 pages) | Cited 70 times

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Using infrared transmission and Raman spectroscopy, we have studied the optical phonon modes of GaN layers grown on GaAs(001) substrates by molecular beam epitaxy. The crystal structure of the GaN layers ranges from predominantly wurtzite to predominantly zincblende depending on the growth conditions. The transverse and longitudinal optical phonons in cubic GaN are found to be at 552 and 739 cm−1, respectively. These frequencies are slightly shifted with respect to the corresponding A1 and E1 phonon modes in hexagonal GaN. The frequency shifts, together with Raman scattering selection rules, can be used for identifying the phase composition of GaN. A more distinct fingerprint of the hexagonal phase is provided by the occurrence of the E2 phonon modes that are spectrally separated from optical phonon modes in the cubic phase and thus uniquely related to the hexagonal phase. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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78.30.Fs III-V and II-VI semiconductors
63.20.D- Phonon states and bands, normal modes, and phonon dispersion
68.55.Nq Composition and phase identification

Photorefractive asymmetric Fabry–Pérot quantum wells: Transverse‐field geometry

K. M. Kwolek, M. R. Melloch, D. D. Nolte, and G. A. Brost

Appl. Phys. Lett. 67, 736 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.115209 (3 pages) | Cited 22 times

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Photorefractive asymmetric Fabry–Pérot quantum‐well structures yield significantly enhanced diffraction during four‐wave mixing by employing the sensitive amplitude and phase control of multiple‐beam interference within the device. We present an Al0.1Ga0.9As/GaAs photorefractive quantum‐well device with a near optimal input diffraction efficiency of 0.36% and an AlAs/GaAs quantum‐well device with an output diffraction efficiency of 200%. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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42.65.Jx Beam trapping, self-focusing and defocusing; self-phase modulation
78.66.Fd III-V semiconductors

Production of submicrometer period Bragg gratings in optical fibers using wavefront division with a biprism and an excimer laser source

N. H. Rizvi and M. C. Gower

Appl. Phys. Lett. 67, 739 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.115210 (3 pages) | Cited 3 times

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Biprisms are used as a method of wavefront division with an excimer laser source to holographically write first‐order Bragg gratings in single‐mode optical fibers. Gratings with a period of 556 nm and peak reflectivity of 62% are produced using single pulses from a krypton fluoride (KrF) laser. A comparison is made between grating production with line‐narrowed and nonline narrowed lasers. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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42.40.Kw Holographic interferometry; other holographic techniques
42.81.Qb Fiber waveguides, couplers, and arrays

Subwavelength amorphous silicon transmission gratings and applications in polarizers and waveplates

Stephen Y. Chou and Wenyong Deng

Appl. Phys. Lett. 67, 742 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.115211 (3 pages) | Cited 5 times

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Subwavelength amorphous silicon transmission gratings with a period from 100 to 800 nm and a thickness of 180 nm on silica substrates have been fabricated and studied. For a normal incident light (λ=633 nm), in addition to strong birefringence (as large as 170° in phase difference), it was observed that the transmission of TE (the electric field parallel to the grating finger) wave is significantly different from that of TM (the electric field perpendicular to the grating fingers) wave (as large as 12 dB), and that both polarization and birefringence effects strongly depend on the ratio of grating period to wavelength, having the largest variations at the grating periods around a half of the wavelength. This observation deviates significantly from simple form birefringence theory and effective medium theory. Applications such as polarization selection mirrors for vertical cavity surface emitting lasers and waveplates are discussed. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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42.79.Dj Gratings
42.79.Ci Filters, zone plates, and polarizers

Measurement of elastic impedance with high spatial resolution using acoustic microscopy

S. Hirsekorn, S. Pangraz, G. Weides, and W. Arnold

Appl. Phys. Lett. 67, 745 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.115212 (3 pages) | Cited 9 times

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See Also: Erratum

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The magnitude of the gray levels in an image obtained by an acoustric microscope can be exploited to measure the acoustic impedance of a sample with the spatial resolution of the instrument. Theoretical considerations show the functional dependence of the maximal amplitude of specular reflection from material constants, which is confirmed by experiments. It turns out that for these amplitude values the opening angle of the lens plays a minor role. For a quantitative evaluation of the impedance, calibration by a known object material is necessary. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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68.37.Ef Scanning tunneling microscopy (including chemistry induced with STM)
68.37.Ps Atomic force microscopy (AFM)
68.37.Rt Magnetic force microscopy (MFM)
68.37.Uv Near-field scanning microscopy and spectroscopy
43.35.-c Ultrasonics, quantum acoustics, and physical effects of sound
43.58.-e Acoustical measurements and instrumentation
62.20.D- Elasticity

Depth profile of the nonlinear optical susceptibility of ion‐implanted KNbO3 waveguides

Daniel Fluck, Tomas Pliska, Manfred Küpfer, and Peter Günter

Appl. Phys. Lett. 67, 748 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.115213 (3 pages) | Cited 11 times

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We report on the depth profile of the nonlinear optical susceptibility in ion‐implanted potassium niobate (KNbO3) waveguides using reflected second harmonic generation from wedged samples. After irradiation the waveguide layer exhibits partial loss of its optical nonlinearity that can be recovered to better than 90% of its value of the virgin crystal by subsequent annealing and repoling. We propose microscopic depolarization due to ion implantation to be responsible for the observed decrease of the nonlinear optical susceptibility. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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42.65.An Optical susceptibility, hyperpolarizability
42.70.Nq Other nonlinear optical materials; photorefractive and semiconductor materials
42.79.Gn Optical waveguides and couplers
61.80.Jh Ion radiation effects

Theoretical prediction of GaN lasing and temperature sensitivity

W. Fang and S. L. Chuang

Appl. Phys. Lett. 67, 751 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.115214 (3 pages) | Cited 60 times

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We present a theoretical prediction of the threshold current density and the temperature sensitivity of a GaN laser operating in the intrinsic band‐to‐band transition. We calculate the material gain and spontaneous emission spectrum for unintentionally doped bulk GaN under carrier injection. All stimulated and spontaneous emission calculations are compared to those of bulk GaAs. The transparency carrier density of GaN is found to be more than four times that of GaAs, and the momentum matrix element for optical transitions in bulk GaN is estimated to be about one‐third the value in GaAs. In addition, the differential gain is approximately four times smaller in GaN. These differences are attributed to the larger effective masses of the electrons and holes in GaN. The calculated characteristic temperature T0 of the threshold current density for a GaN laser ranges from 185 to 220 K, which agrees well with the recently observed data from optical pumping experiments. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.  
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.60.-v Laser optical systems: design and operation

Theory of laser gain in group‐III nitrides

W. W. Chow, A. Knorr, and S. W. Koch

Appl. Phys. Lett. 67, 754 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.115215 (3 pages) | Cited 60 times

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A many‐body calculation of the nonlinear optical response of bulk group‐III nitrides is presented. For the example of GaN it is shown that the Coulomb effects contribute significantly to the magnitude and spectral extension, as well as the temperature and carrier density dependences of the optical gain and absorption. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.60.Da Resonators, cavities, amplifiers, arrays, and rings
78.66.Fd III-V semiconductors

Type‐II quantum‐well lasers for the mid‐wavelength infrared

J. R. Meyer, C. A. Hoffman, F. J. Bartoli, and L. R. Ram‐Mohan

Appl. Phys. Lett. 67, 757 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.115216 (3 pages) | Cited 186 times

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We discuss an improved mid‐wave infrared diode laser structure based on InAs‐Ga1−xInxSb‐ InAs‐Ga1−xAlxSb Type‐II multiple quantum wells. The proposed design combines strong optical coupling, 2D dispersion for both electrons and holes, suppression of the Auger recombination rate, and excellent electrical and optical confinement. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.60.-v Laser optical systems: design and operation

Unity ratio of cross‐ to self‐phase modulation in bulk AlGaAs and AlGaAs/GaAs multiple quantum well waveguides at half the band gap

A. Villeneuve, J. U. Kang, J. S. Aitchison, and G. I. Stegeman

Appl. Phys. Lett. 67, 760 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.115217 (3 pages) | Cited 11 times

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We have found the cross‐phase modulation (XPM) for cross‐polarized beams to be equal to the self‐phase modulation (SPM) in bulk AlGaAs semiconductor waveguide at photon energies lower than half the band gap. For multiple quantum well (MQW) waveguide the ratio of the cross‐phase modulation coefficient to the self‐phase modulation coefficient is approximately one for the pump polarized perpendicular to the well plane (TM) and one‐half for pump beams in the plane of the wells (TE). © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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42.79.Gn Optical waveguides and couplers
78.66.Fd III-V semiconductors

Postphotobleaching method for the control of coupling constant in an electro‐optic polymer directional coupler switch

Wol‐Yon Hwang, Jang‐Joo Kim, Taehyoung Zyung, Min‐Cheol Oh, and Sang‐Yung Shin

Appl. Phys. Lett. 67, 763 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.115218 (3 pages) | Cited 10 times

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A method to control the coupling constant of a directional coupler switch made of electro‐optic polymer after completing the device fabrication is demonstrated. The method utilizes the selective postphotobleaching of the gap region to lower its effective refractive index while monitoring optical output power from each arm. The output power changes gradually and the crossover states are successively observed as the postphotobleaching proceeds. It is shown that the method can be utilized to tune the initial output to the crossover state to have a good switching extinction. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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42.79.Gn Optical waveguides and couplers
42.70.Jk Polymers and organics

Optical properties of Ca3Mn2Ge3O12

B. Sugg, S. L. Gnatchenko, B. Faust, and R. A. Rupp

Appl. Phys. Lett. 67, 766 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.115460 (2 pages) | Cited 1 time

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Tetragonal calcium manganese germanium garnet (Ca3Mn2Ge3O12) is determined to be optically negative. An analysis of the angular dependence of the transmission for a‐cut crystals reveals the presence of dichroism. Absorption is largest for extraordinarily polarized light. Both properties allow to determine and orient the crystallographic axes of Ca3Mn2Ge3O12 samples. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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78.20.Fm Birefringence
42.25.Lc Birefringence

Blue and red laser action in Nd3+:Pr3+ co‐doped fluorozirconate glass

S. C. Goh, R. Pattie, C. Byrne, and D. Coulson

Appl. Phys. Lett. 67, 768 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.115461 (3 pages) | Cited 14 times

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Lasing has been observed in the blue (488 nm) and red (635 nm, 717 nm) bands in a new Nd3+:Pr3+ co‐doped fluorozirconate (ZBLANP) glass fiber with 796 nm pump. An upconversion and resonant energy transfer mechanism is proposed to explain the visible transitions. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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42.55.Wd Fiber lasers
42.60.-v Laser optical systems: design and operation

Experimental investigation of the relative importance of carrier heating and spectral‐hole‐burning on nonlinear gain in bulk and strained multi‐quantum‐well 1.55 μm lasers

François Girardin, Guang‐Hua Duan, Philippe Gallion, Anne Talneau, and Abdallah Ougazzaden

Appl. Phys. Lett. 67, 771 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.115462 (3 pages) | Cited 17 times

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The transverse spontaneous emission is used to characterize the gain suppression in semiconductor lasers during their operation for the first time. The carrier heating and the spectral‐hole‐burning are distinguished by using their different spectral behavior. The measurements show a very strong carrier heating in strained multi‐quantum‐well lasers which do not appear in bulk devices. Moreover, the total nonlinear gain coefficient is measured by using a modulation method; the results show a high value of ϵ=16.10−17 cm3 for the strained multi quantum‐well laser and an usual value of ϵ=2.10−17 cm3 for the bulk, consistent with the measurement of gain suppression spectrum. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.60.Da Resonators, cavities, amplifiers, arrays, and rings

Blocking injected dark current in impurity‐band‐conduction photodetectors using a PtSi Schottky barrier

B. G. Martin, R. W. Fathauer, E. W. Jones, T. N. Krabach, and S. M. Dejewski

Appl. Phys. Lett. 67, 774 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.115463 (3 pages) | Cited 2 times

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An experimental investigation was made on the use of a PtSi Schottky barrier for blocking injected electron dark current in a back‐illuminated impurity‐band‐conduction (IBC) photodetector, a device used for detecting long‐wavelength infrared (LWIR) radiation. Measured results on the Schottky barrier height as well as current versus applied bias results are presented, and show that the desired blocking capability has been attained. At the low operating temperatures (∼10 K) of the IBC device, the injected dark current is below our measurement capability for applied biases of up to 10 V. Injected dark current in conventional devices occurs at biases of ∼1 V. The modified device configuration discussed here would enable one to store the mobile ionized donor charge for subsequent readout. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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85.60.Gz Photodetectors (including infrared and CCD detectors)
73.30.+y Surface double layers, Schottky barriers, and work functions
73.50.Pz Photoconduction and photovoltaic effects

Phononic band structure in a mass chain

Samantha Parmley, Tom Zobrist, Terry Clough, Anthony Perez‐Miller, Mark Makela, and Roger Yu

Appl. Phys. Lett. 67, 777 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.115464 (3 pages) | Cited 18 times

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The vibrational properties of a finite one‐dimensional string‐mass chain are studied experimentally and theoretically. In the experiment both normal mode analysis and pulse analysis are used to obtain the eigenfrequencies of the string‐mass chain. The theoretical predictions are made based upon the numerical solution to the wave equation. The phononic band structure for a periodically massed string as well as Anderson localized gap modes for a disordered system are found. The theoretical and experimental results match satisfactorily well. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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41.20.Jb Electromagnetic wave propagation; radiowave propagation
43.35.-c Ultrasonics, quantum acoustics, and physical effects of sound

Spontaneous vitrification in the Au–Ta system with a small size difference

F. Pan, Y. G. Chen, and B. X. Liu

Appl. Phys. Lett. 67, 780 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.115465 (3 pages) | Cited 13 times

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Spontaneous vitrification was observed in the Au–Ta system, although the atomic size difference between Au and Ta is very small. It was found that among the various compositions studied, vitrification was only achieved at a composition of around Au23Ta77. Comparative data were obtained by ion mixing of Au–Ta multilayered films to support the spontaneous vitrification results. The amorphization mechanism was discussed in terms of competition between the amorphous phase against the nucleation and growth of the existing equilibrium compound, which explained the favorable composition range as well as the thermal stability of the obtained amorphous alloy. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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81.30.Hd Constant-composition solid-solid phase transformations: polymorphic, massive, and order-disorder
64.75.-g Phase equilibria

Light emission of C60 embedded in porous silicon

Shen‐Yi Wang, Wen‐Zhong Shen, Xue‐Chu Shen, Lei Zhu, Zhong‐Min Ren, Yu‐Fen Li, and Kai‐Feng Liu

Appl. Phys. Lett. 67, 783 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.115466 (3 pages) | Cited 5 times

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We have fabricated samples with C60 implanted into porous silicon with the ionized cluster beam deposition approach for improving the light emission of C60. We have obtained intense and well‐resolved photoluminescence spectra under excitation of Ar+ laser (514.5 nm) at room temperature. The depth analysis of secondary ion mass spectroscopy showed that C60 had been incorporated into porous silicon. A large number of fine‐structure peaks in the photoluminescence spectrum indicated the strong coupling of vibrational progressions with electronic states of C60 induced by the interaction between C60 molecule and nanometer‐sized silicon particles. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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78.55.Hx Other solid inorganic materials
61.80.Jh Ion radiation effects
61.46.-w Structure of nanoscale materials

Direct writing of nanostructures from silane on silicon (111)

T. M. H. Wong, S. J. O’Shea, A. W. McKinnon, and M. E. Welland

Appl. Phys. Lett. 67, 786 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.115467 (3 pages) | Cited 11 times

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Silicon based structures were fabricated using scanning tunneling microscope on a Si(111) surface by the localized decomposition of gaseous silane at pressures of 10−5–10−6 Torr. Continuous wires of width 5 nm could be produced while atomically resolved images of the nearby substrate were obtained. We argue that the fabrication process is effected by field‐assisted decomposition of silane on the tip surface, which subsequently migrates to the tunneling region at the tip apex where it field desorbs to the silicon surface. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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81.07.-b Nanoscale materials and structures: fabrication and characterization
81.16.-c Methods of micro- and nanofabrication and processing
85.35.-p Nanoelectronic devices
68.37.Ef Scanning tunneling microscopy (including chemistry induced with STM)
68.37.Ps Atomic force microscopy (AFM)
68.37.Rt Magnetic force microscopy (MFM)
68.37.Uv Near-field scanning microscopy and spectroscopy

Strain relaxation of Ge1−xSix buffer systems grown on Ge (001)

J. H. Li, V. Holy, G. Bauer, J. F. Nützel, and G. Abstreiter

Appl. Phys. Lett. 67, 789 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.115468 (3 pages) | Cited 3 times

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We have investigated the strain relaxation behavior of biaxial tensile strained Ge1−xSix buffer systems grown on Ge (001) by a high‐resolution x‐ray reciprocal space mapping technique. The molecular beam epitaxy grown structures contain a linearly graded buffer, followed by a uniform buffer and a modulation‐doped heterostructure with a high mobility two‐dimensional hole gas in a Ge channel. Our quantitative measurements of the in‐plane strain show that the lower part of the graded buffer is completely strain relaxed, while the top part of this region and the uniform alloy buffer are partly strain relaxed showing a linear increase of strain towards to surface. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
61.05.C- X-ray diffraction and scattering

X‐ray characterization of the domain structure of epitaxial lead titanate thin films on (001) strontium titanate

W. ‐Y. Hsu and R. Raj

Appl. Phys. Lett. 67, 792 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.115469 (3 pages) | Cited 29 times

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The coherency of the domain walls forming between the a and c domains in epitaxial lead titanate films forces a tilt in the a‐domains with respect to the surface normal of the (001)SrTiO3 substrate. It is shown that the measurement of the relative volume fraction of the domains requires mapping of the x‐ray diffraction intensity distribution in the reciprocal space. Maps for lead titanate films of different thickness show that a domains are essentially absent in films less than 50 nm thick and approach 25% volume fraction at a thickness of 350 nm. The tilt angle, which lies in the range 2.65±0.5°, remains unchanged with thickness. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
61.05.C- X-ray diffraction and scattering
77.80.Dj Domain structure; hysteresis
77.84.Ek Niobates and tantalates
77.84.Cg PZT ceramics and other titanates

Optical and dielectric properties of photochromic dye in amorphous state and its application

Tsuyoshi Kawai, Takashi Koshido, and Katsumi Yoshino

Appl. Phys. Lett. 67, 795 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.115470 (3 pages) | Cited 32 times

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Preparation of amorphous phase of a photochromic dye, cis‐1,2‐dicyano‐1,2‐ bis(2,4,5‐trimethyl‐ 3‐thienyl) ethene, has been investigated and its photochromic properties have been studied. This photochromic dye shows clear photochromism in the amorphous solid state accompanying reversible changes in absorption spectrum, refractive index, and dielectric properties. Clear optical pattern formation has been achieved on the amorphous dye layer. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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42.70.Jk Polymers and organics
81.20.Ev Powder processing: powder metallurgy, compaction, sintering, mechanical alloying, and granulation
78.66.Qn Polymers; organic compounds

Dynamics of transgranular voids in metallic thin films under electromigration conditions

Dimitrios Maroudas

Appl. Phys. Lett. 67, 798 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.115471 (3 pages) | Cited 30 times

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A theoretical analysis is presented for the morphological evolution and stability of transgranular wedge‐shaped voids in conductor lines with bamboo grain structure under an applied electric field. A linear stability analysis identifies void shapes that become unstable with respect to the growth of perturbations with wavelengths longer than a critical wavelength. The analysis predicts a critical wavelength that is consistent with experimental observations in unpassivated aluminum lines. The predicted changes in shape during the morphological evolution of the void surfaces are in agreement with the experimental observations. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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61.72.Qq Microscopic defects (voids, inclusions, etc.)
66.30.Qa Electromigration

Real‐space‐transfer of electrons in InGaAs/InAlAs heterostructures

W. Ted Masselink

Appl. Phys. Lett. 67, 801 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.115448 (3 pages) | Cited 6 times

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Measurements of the electron velocity as a function of electric field in bulk InGaAs and in modulation‐doped InGaAs/InAlAs (lattice‐matched to InP) indicate that hot electrons transfer out of the InGaAs channel into the InAlAs. This added scattering mechanism results in a lower peak velocity for electrons in the heterosystem than in bulk InGaAs. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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73.40.Kp III-V semiconductor-to-semiconductor contacts, p-n junctions, and heterojunctions
73.40.Qv Metal-insulator-semiconductor structures (including semiconductor-to-insulator)

Carrier capture efficiency of AlGaAs/GaAs quantum wires affected by composition nonuniformity of an AlGaAs barrier layer

Xue‐Lun Wang, Mutsuo Ogura, and Hirofumi Matsuhata

Appl. Phys. Lett. 67, 804 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.115449 (3 pages) | Cited 21 times

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Effects of composition nonuniformity of an AlGaAs barrier layer on the carrier capture efficiency of an AlGaAs/GaAs quantum wire (QWR) grown on nonplanar substrates are investigated using photoluminescence measurements. The photogenerated carriers first experience a redistribution from the high Al composition region to the low Al composition region in the AlGaAs barrier layer due to the potential difference caused by the composition nonuniformity before they are captured by quantum well or QWR regions. Such a carrier redistribution greatly affects the carrier capture efficiency of QWR structures. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
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73.50.Gr Charge carriers: generation, recombination, lifetime, trapping, mean free paths
73.21.-b Electron states and collective excitations in multilayers, quantum wells, mesoscopic, and nanoscale systems
78.55.Cr III-V semiconductors
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