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25 Mar 1996

Volume 68, Issue 13, pp. 1745-1873

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Continuous wave operation of midinfrared (7.4–8.6 μm) quantum cascade lasers up to 110 K temperature

Carlo Sirtori, Jérôme Faist, Federico Capasso, Deborah L. Sivco, Albert L. Hutchinson, S. N. George Chu, and Alfred Y. Cho

Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 1745 (1996); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.116654 (3 pages) | Cited 50 times

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The continuous wave (cw) operation of quantum cascade lasers operating at wavelengths in the 7.4–8.6 μm range is reported. The GaInAs/AlInAs structures, grown by molecular beam epitaxy, are based on a vertical intersubband transition scheme and use a plasmon‐enhanced waveguide geometry to reduce losses and increase the confinement factor. The single mode cw optical power from one facet is 2 mW up to a maximum temperature of 110 K. In pulsed operation, the highest temperature is 210 K and the threshold shows a weak temperature dependence typical of these class of lasers, with a T0=110 K. © 1996 American Institute of Physics.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.60.-v Laser optical systems: design and operation

Birefringence, Pockels, and Kerr effects in photorefractive polymers

B. Kippelen, Sandalphon, K. Meerholz, and N. Peyghambarian

Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 1748 (1996); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.116653 (3 pages) | Cited 30 times

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A simple frequency‐dependent ellipsometric technique for measuring the birefringence, the Pockels and Kerr properties of low glass‐transition temperature photorefractive polymers is proposed. The technique is applied to the characterization of highly efficient DMNPAA:PVK:ECZ:TNF photorefractive polymers and the determination of the microscopic properties of the DMNPAA molecule. © 1996 American Institute of Physics.
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42.65.An Optical susceptibility, hyperpolarizability
42.70.Jk Polymers and organics
42.70.Nq Other nonlinear optical materials; photorefractive and semiconductor materials

Study of anomalous peak in the dielectric spectra of CdTe thin films using photoellipsometry

P. D. Paulson and V. Dutta

Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 1751 (1996); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.116655 (3 pages) | Cited 1 time

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Dielectric constants of CdTe thin films in the presence of a weak pump beam have been measured at room temperature using photoellipsometric technique in the energy range 1.5–5 eV. An anomalous peak is observed in the dielectric spectra of CdTe thin films deposited in oxygen ambient. The peak height depends on the oxygen content in the film and intensity of the pump beam. No peak was observed when the films were deposited under high vacuum (2×10−6 Torr) or if the pump beam power was <25 μW. © 1996 American Institute of Physics.
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78.66.Hf II-VI semiconductors

Second‐harmonic generation of blue light from [112]‐oriented III‐V antiresonant waveguide heterostructures

P. A. Ramos and E. Towe

Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 1754 (1996); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.116656 (3 pages) | Cited 4 times

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Second‐harmonic generation of blue light by the nonlinear interaction of two counter‐propagating transverse electric‐polarized fundamental fields in a [112]‐oriented (Al,Ga)As/GaAs antiresonant waveguide is demonstrated. Theoretical calculations of the visible output power for given fundamental inputs are shown to agree with experiment. Our results show that GaAs‐based materials may offer another alternative for the development of blue/green light‐emitters. © 1996 American Institute of Physics.
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42.65.Ky Frequency conversion; harmonic generation, including higher-order harmonic generation
42.70.Nq Other nonlinear optical materials; photorefractive and semiconductor materials
42.79.Hp Optical processors, correlators, and modulators

Estimation of scattering losses in dielectrically apertured vertical cavity lasers

E. R. Hegblom, D. I. Babic, B. J. Thibeault, and L. A. Coldren

Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 1757 (1996); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.116657 (3 pages) | Cited 44 times

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Dielectric apertures, formed by oxidation or wet‐etching of high Al content AlGaAs layers in vertical cavity lasers, have recently been used for improved device performance. In this letter an iterative numerical analysis is used to estimate the excess optical losses as the device diameter is reduced. For smaller sizes, where single‐mode devices are possible, the optical scattering losses become significant unless the aperture is tapered to approximate a perfect lens or is thin to approximate a weaker waveguide. © 1996 American Institute of Physics.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.60.-v Laser optical systems: design and operation

Quasi‐phase‐matched second harmonic generation in a polymer waveguide with a periodic poled structure

Satoru Tomaru, Toshio Watanabe, Makoto Hikita, Michiyuki Amano, Yoshito Shuto, Itaru Yokohoma, Toshikuni Kaino, and Masaki Asobe

Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 1760 (1996); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.116658 (3 pages) | Cited 26 times

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Quasi‐phase‐matched (QPM) second harmonic generation in a poled polymer waveguide has been realized. A waveguide with a periodic structure was fabricated by conventional photolithography and reactive ion etching. The waveguide with a QPM structure was composed of poled polymer and UV cured epoxy resin. Phase‐matched second harmonic generation was observed, using laser light with a fundamental wavelength 1.48–1.65 μm. This phase matched condition was dependent on the periodic length. The waveguide had a typical second harmonic generation efficiency of about 4×10−1% W−1 cm−2 around a wavelength of 1.55 μm. © 1996 American Institute of Physics.
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42.65.Ky Frequency conversion; harmonic generation, including higher-order harmonic generation
42.70.Nq Other nonlinear optical materials; photorefractive and semiconductor materials

Incoherently coupled soliton pairs in biased photorefractive crystals

D. N. Christodoulides, S. R. Singh, M. I. Carvalho, and M. Segev

Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 1763 (1996); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.116659 (3 pages) | Cited 101 times

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We show that incoherently coupled soliton pairs are possible in biased photorefractive crystals, under steady‐state conditions. These solitons can propagate in bright‐bright, dark‐dark, as well as in bright‐dark configurations. Such soliton pairs can be established provided that the carrier beams share the same polarization, wavelength, and are mutually incoherent. Relevant examples are provided where the photorefractive crystal is of the strontium barium niobate type. The characteristics and stability properties of these soliton states are also discussed in detail. © 1996 American Institute of Physics.
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42.65.Jx Beam trapping, self-focusing and defocusing; self-phase modulation
42.65.Tg Optical solitons; nonlinear guided waves

Early phenomena of capillary discharges for an electrothermal gun

T. Sueda, S. Katsuki, and H. Akiyama

Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 1766 (1996); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.116660 (3 pages) | Cited 1 time

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The 80 kJ electrothermal gun facility at Kumamoto University was assembled in order to investigate the phenomena of capillary discharges and to determine parameters of plasmas produced by a high power pulse discharge in the capillary. The behavior of capillary discharges is observed by using an image converter camera in order to make clear the early phenomena of the capillary discharge in different ambient pressures. The behavior of early capillary discharges varies from arc discharge to surface discharges with decreasing ambient pressure. © 1996 American Institute of Physics.
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52.75.Di Ion and plasma propulsion
52.80.Mg Arcs; sparks; lightning; atmospheric electricity

Surface periodic structures induced by pulsed laser irradiation of fullerite

P. Milani and M. Manfredini

Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 1769 (1996); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.116661 (3 pages) | Cited 8 times

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Fullerite surface modifications induced by 1064 and 266 nm pulsed laser irradiation have been studied by scanning electron microscopy. The formation of micropatterns with a well‐defined periodicity is reported. The morphology of the periodic nanostructures can be controlled by varying the laser fluence, the angle of incidence, and the wavelength. The different patterns observed for infrared and ultraviolet irradiation suggest that electronic and thermal effects are responsible of the formation of the periodic structures. © 1996 American Institute of Physics.
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68.37.Hk Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) (including EBIC)
68.37.Lp Transmission electron microscopy (TEM)
61.46.-w Structure of nanoscale materials
81.07.-b Nanoscale materials and structures: fabrication and characterization
81.16.-c Methods of micro- and nanofabrication and processing
85.35.-p Nanoelectronic devices

Nanometer‐sized silicon crystallites prepared by excimer laser ablation in constant pressure inert gas

Takehito Yoshida, Shigeru Takeyama, Yuka Yamada, and Katsuhiko Mutoh

Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 1772 (1996); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.116662 (3 pages) | Cited 89 times

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We report nanometer‐sized silicon (Si) crystallites prepared by excimer laser ablation in constant pressure inert gas ambient. Size distribution of the Si ultrafine particles depends on the pressure of inert gas ambients. The relation between the average size and the ambient pressure can be explained by an inertia fluid model. It is verified that the size of the Si ultrafine particles is ∼3 nm and greater in diameter. Furthermore, crystallinity of the nanoscale ultrafine particles is crystalline similar to that of bulk Si. © 1996 American Institute of Physics.
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81.07.-b Nanoscale materials and structures: fabrication and characterization
81.15.Fg Pulsed laser ablation deposition

Electrical properties of Ta2O5 films obtained by plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition using a TaF5 source

R. A. B. Devine, L. Vallier, J. L. Autran, P. Paillet, and J. L. Leray

Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 1775 (1996); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.116663 (3 pages) | Cited 36 times

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High quality Ta2O5 thin films have been obtained from TaF5 and O2 using a microwave excited electron cyclotron resonance plasma at low pressure (∼2 mTorr). Physical and electrical measurements reveal that the as‐deposited amorphous films have excellent properties: refractive indices ∼2.16, dielectric constants ∼25, and leakage currents <10−10 A cm−2 at 2.5 V (0.3 MV cm−1, 85 nm thick, 13 nm SiO2 equivalent). Trapping and conduction properties of these layers have also been investigated, showing a reversible electron trapping and a trap‐limited Poole–Frenkel effect. © 1996 American Institute of Physics.
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73.61.Ng Insulators
81.15.-z Methods of deposition of films and coatings; film growth and epitaxy

Microcrystallography using atomic force microscopy

H. F. Helbig, J. V. Beasock, G. O. Ramseyer, and L. H. Walsh

Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 1778 (1996); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.116664 (3 pages) | Cited 1 time

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Scanning microscopy can be used to obtain crystallographic information about suboptical structures. By the same token, the x‐y‐z length scales of scanning microscopy can be brought into mutual consistency by measuring the angles between facets of crystallites of known habit. © 1996 American Institute of Physics.
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68.37.Ef Scanning tunneling microscopy (including chemistry induced with STM)
68.37.Ps Atomic force microscopy (AFM)
68.37.Rt Magnetic force microscopy (MFM)
68.37.Uv Near-field scanning microscopy and spectroscopy
68.35.B- Structure of clean surfaces (and surface reconstruction)

All laser‐assisted heteroepitaxial growth of Si0.8Ge0.2 on Si(100): Pulsed laser deposition and laser induced melting solidification

R. Serna, A. Blasco, T. Missana, J. Solís, C. N. Afonso, A. Rodríguez, T. Rodríguez, and M. F. da Silva

Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 1781 (1996); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.116665 (3 pages) | Cited 4 times

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The growth of heteroepitaxial Si0.8Ge0.2 films on Si(100) by a novel all laser‐assisted technique using only ArF excimer laser radiation is demonstrated. Amorphous 30 nm thick films are grown by pulsed laser deposition from alternating pure Si and Ge targets on clean Si substrates. Melting and rapid solidification is then induced by pulsed irradiation (0.54 J/cm2), promoting epitaxial growth. © 1996 American Institute of Physics.
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81.15.-z Methods of deposition of films and coatings; film growth and epitaxy

Metastable γ phase in ion beam synthesized FeSi2

Z. Yang, G. Shao, and K. P. Homewood

Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 1784 (1996); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.116666 (3 pages) | Cited 8 times

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Ion beam synthesized iron silicide (FeSi2) (200 keV, 350 °C, 4×1017 Fe+/cm2) was studied by transmission electron microscopy. Face‐centered cubic FeSi2 (γ phase) was observed in the as‐implanted sample and the samples annealed at temperatures up to 600 °C. It is suggested that the formation of the equilibrium semiconducting FeSi2 (β phase) is preceded via a transition γ phase due to its better lattice match with the silicon matrix. The absence of metallic FeSi2 (α phase) can be attributed to the high iron dose implantation. © 1996 American Institute of Physics.
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68.55.Nq Composition and phase identification
81.15.-z Methods of deposition of films and coatings; film growth and epitaxy

Growth of dark spots by interdiffusion across organic layers in organic electroluminescent devices

Masamichi Fujihira, Lee‐Mi Do, Amane Koike, and Eun‐Mi Han

Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 1787 (1996); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.116667 (3 pages) | Cited 64 times

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In order to clarify the propagation mechanism of dark spots in an organic multilayered electroluminescent device, in situ electroluminescence microscopy as well as photoluminescence (PL) microscopy and Auger electron spectroscopy of the degraded device was carried out. The difference in local PL spectra between the dark spots and the normal surface area was also observed by using scanning near‐field optical/atomic force microscopy. The growing mechanism of the dark spots was proposed from these observations. © 1996 American Institute of Physics.
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78.60.Fi Electroluminescence
85.60.Jb Light-emitting devices

Strain‐induced phase separation in annealed low‐temperature grown Al0.3Ga0.7As

K. C. Hsieh, K. Y. Hsieh, Y. L. Hwang, T. Zhang, and R. M. Kolbas

Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 1790 (1996); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.116668 (3 pages) | Cited 10 times

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Data are presented to show that the hydrostatic strain in a metastable Al0.3Ga0.7As film grown at low temperatures induces a one‐dimensional compositional modulation upon annealing at 600 °C, a direct evidence of the existence of a miscibility gap in strained AlxGa1−xAs. A strain‐driven vacancy‐assisted mechanism is proposed to account for the compositional modulation and segregation of As clusters. © 1996 American Institute of Physics.
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68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
68.55.Nq Composition and phase identification

Carbon implantation in AlxGa1−xAs

S. J. Pearton and C. R. Abernathy

Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 1793 (1996); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.116015 (3 pages) | Cited 2 times

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Maximum hole densities of 4×1018 cm−3 were produced in Al0.3Ga0.7As by C+Ga implantation and subsequent annealing at ∼800 °C. The activation efficiency decreases with increasing AlAs mole fraction and the use of higher temperatures for the Ga coimplantation, due to a reduced vacancy concentration under these conditions. The C diffusivity is ≤1.3×10−13 cm2 s−1 at 950 °C in implanted Al0.3Ga0.7As, demonstrating that C is a much more thermally stable acceptor than Be, Mg, or Zn. © 1996 American Institute of Physics.
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61.72.uj III-V and II-VI semiconductors
66.30.J- Diffusion of impurities

Surface photoabsorption study of the effect of V/III ratio on ordering in GaInP

H. Murata, T. C. Hsu, I. H. Ho, L. C. Su, Y. Hosokawa, and G. B. Stringfellow

Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 1796 (1996); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.116016 (3 pages) | Cited 13 times

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Cu–Pt ordering is widely observed in Ga0.5In0.5P layers grown by organometallic vapor phase epitaxy. The degree of order is a strong function of the input partial pressure of the phosphorus precursor, i.e., the V/III ratio, during growth. By observing the surface structure using in situ surface photoabsorption (SPA) measurements, the concentration of [110]‐oriented P dimers, characteristic of the (2×4) reconstructed surface, has been measured as a function of the growth conditions. For growth at 670 °C, the P‐dimer concentration is found to increase systematically as the input tertiarybutylphosphine pressure is increased from 10 to 200 Pa. This corresponds directly to a monotonic increase in the degree of order, measured using transmission electron microscopy and low‐temperature photoluminescence. These data strongly suggest that the (2×4) surface reconstruction is necessary for formation of the Cu–Pt structure. The step structure at the surface was also observed for these layers using atomic force microscopy. For high V/III ratios the structure of the layers grown on exactly (001) oriented GaAs substrates consists of islands surrounded mainly by bilayer (5.7 Å) steps. As the V/III ratio is reduced, the step height transforms to 2.8 Å (one monolayer). © 1996 American Institute of Physics.
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68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
81.15.Kk Vapor phase epitaxy; growth from vapor phase

Fabrication of polymer nanodots with single electron patterning technology

Toshiyuki Yoshimura, Hiroshi Shiraishi, Jiro Yamamoto, Tsuneo Terasawa, and Shinji Okazaki

Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 1799 (1996); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.116017 (3 pages) | Cited 3 times

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Polymer nanodots 3–5 nm in diameter have been fabricated using conventional polymer resists. Negative‐type resists of cresol novolak resins combined with crosslinkers are exposed with a uniform 50‐kV electron beam. The uniform beam is considered to be a flux of ultrafine beams of individual electrons that causes crosslink reactions. By selecting electron beam doses and wet development conditions, dense patterns of polymer nanodots are successfully obtained. We call this process ‘‘single electron patterning technology’’ (SEPT). Sizes of the nanodots reflect the molecular‐weight distribution characteristics of the resin polymers. A resist polymer with a small molecular distribution (polydispersity) leads to uniform dots. The dots are thought to be polymer microgels that consist of a few crosslinked resin molecules, or the molecules themselves. X‐ray photoelectron spectroscopy confirms that the dots consist of resist polymers. © 1996 American Institute of Physics.
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82.50.Kx Processes caused by X-rays or γ-rays
81.07.-b Nanoscale materials and structures: fabrication and characterization
81.16.-c Methods of micro- and nanofabrication and processing
85.35.-p Nanoelectronic devices

Carbon‐doped boron nitride cold cathodes

R. W. Pryor

Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 1802 (1996); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.116018 (3 pages) | Cited 62 times

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These results reflect what is believed to be the first observation of electron emission from carbon‐doped boron nitride (BN). The n‐type BN films were synthesized on n‐type polycrystalline diamond on (100)Si using reactive laser ablation. The electron emission current density measured at room temperature shows a power law dependence. Emission currents as high as 60 mA  cm−2 have been measured from 150 nm thick n‐type BN films on a 24 μm n‐type polycrystalline diamond film on a (100)Si substrate. These films show a current density/applied field behavior indicative of negative electron affinity. © 1996 American Institute of Physics.
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79.70.+q Field emission, ionization, evaporation, and desorption
81.15.Fg Pulsed laser ablation deposition

Strain and phonon shifts in GaAs1−xPx alloys

G. Armelles, M. J. Sanjuán, L. González, and Y. González

Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 1805 (1996); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.116019 (3 pages) | Cited 6 times

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We have studied the influence of an in‐plane (001) strain on the energy position of the long wavelength optical modes of GaAs1−xPx alloys. These alloys have a two mode behavior. We have observed that the strain‐induced shift of the Raman peaks corresponding to the GaAs‐like vibration is greater than that of the GaP‐like vibration. This result shows that the two modes are not affected in the same way by the strain. © 1996 American Institute of Physics.
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63.20.-e Phonons in crystal lattices
78.30.Fs III-V and II-VI semiconductors

Metastability and persistent photoconductivity in Mg‐doped p‐type GaN

C. Johnson, J. Y. Lin, H. X. Jiang, M. Asif Khan, and C. J. Sun

Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 1808 (1996); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.116020 (3 pages) | Cited 79 times

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Electrical properties of Mg‐doped p‐type GaN grown by metalorganic chemical vapor deposition have been investigated by Hall effect and conductivity measurements. Metastability and persistent photoconductivity effects have been observed in GaN. It was found that at low temperatures, it takes several hours for the free hole concentration to reach its equilibrium value in the dark as well as in the photoexcited state, implying a bistable nature of impurities in p‐type GaN. Temperature dependence of these behaviors have been studied, from which the energy barrier for free hole capture by ionized impurities as well as between the metastable and the stable states of neutral impurities have been obtained. © 1996 American Institute of Physics.
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71.55.Eq III-V semiconductors
72.20.Jv Charge carriers: generation, recombination, lifetime, and trapping
72.80.Ey III-V and II-VI semiconductors

Scanning‐tunneling‐microscopy modification of nitrogen‐passivated GaAs (001) surfaces on a nanometer scale

Makoto Kasu, Toshiki Makimoto, and Naoki Kobayashi

Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 1811 (1996); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.116021 (3 pages) | Cited 2 times

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Using scanning tunneling microscopy (STM), we perform nanometer‐scale modifications on nitrogen (N)‐passivated GaAs (001) surfaces. After the surface is passivated with nitrogen gas through a heated tungsten filament in an ultrahigh‐vacuum chamber, STM modification is performed by increasing the tunnel current. A 200×200 nm2 square groove was successfully fabricated. The smallest grooves are 0.5 nm deep and 5 nm wide when sample bias is −3 V and tunnel current is 5 nA. The threshold current for modification is 5 nA for surfaces with N passivation, but more than 50 nA for surfaces without N passivation. © 1996 American Institute of Physics.
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68.37.Ef Scanning tunneling microscopy (including chemistry induced with STM)
68.37.Ps Atomic force microscopy (AFM)
68.37.Rt Magnetic force microscopy (MFM)
68.37.Uv Near-field scanning microscopy and spectroscopy
81.07.-b Nanoscale materials and structures: fabrication and characterization
81.16.-c Methods of micro- and nanofabrication and processing
85.35.-p Nanoelectronic devices

A model of size‐dependent photoluminescence in amorphous silicon nanostructures: Comparison with observations of porous silicon

M. J. Estes and G. Moddel

Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 1814 (1996); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.116022 (3 pages) | Cited 31 times

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We present calculations using a simple model of radiative recombination in 2D slabs, 1D wires, and 0D spheres of hydrogenated amorphous silicon (a‐Si:H) showing a significant size dependence of the photoluminescence. Room‐temperature peak emission energies ≳1.8 eV and efficiencies near unity are possible in a‐Si:H spheres with diameters <20 Å. Broad homogeneous linewidths ≳0.25 eV are also predicted for these highly confined structures. While the effects are similar to those predicted from quantum confinement, these results are caused by the statistics of spatial confinement. We suggest that these results provide insights into nanostructured a‐Si:H structures and porous silicon. © 1996 American Institute of Physics.
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72.20.Jv Charge carriers: generation, recombination, lifetime, and trapping
78.55.Hx Other solid inorganic materials

Low‐temperature epitaxial growth of CoGe2(001)/GaAs(100) films using the partially ionized beam deposition technique

K. E. Mello, S. R. Soss, S. P. Murarka, T.‐M. Lu, and S. L. Lee

Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 1817 (1996); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.116023 (3 pages) | Cited 2 times

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The partially ionized beam (PIB) deposition technique was used to deposit CoGe2(001) thin films heteroepitaxially on GaAs(100) substrates. The epitaxial arrangement is CoGe2(001)/GaAs(100). It is found that the best epitaxy was obtained with an ion energy around 1100 eV and with a substrate temperature of 280 °C. The wafers were treated only by immersion in HF:H2O 1:10 immediately prior to deposition. Contacts grown at the optimal epitaxial formation conditions displayed Ohmic behavior, while contacts grown at higher or lower substrate temperatures had rectifying behavior. Epitaxial formation of CoGe2, a high melting point, low resistivity cobalt germanide phase, offers the possibility of forming a stable contact to n‐GaAs. © 1996 American Institute of Physics.
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81.15.Jj Ion and electron beam-assisted deposition; ion plating
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