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29 Apr 1996

Volume 68, Issue 18, pp. 2467-2591

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Simple method for examining sulphur passivation of facets in InGaAs–AlGaAs (λ=0.98 μm) laser diodes

G. Beister, J. Maege, D. Gutsche, G. Erbert, J. Sebastian, K. Vogel, M. Weyers, J. Würfl, and O. P. Daga

Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 2467 (1996); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.115822 (2 pages) | Cited 17 times

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The effect of (NH4)2Sx treatment of the facet of InGaAs/AlGaAs ridge waveguide (RW) laser diodes on the nonradiative current and catastrophic optical damage (COD) level is reported. Using the power–voltage–current (P–V–I) characteristics of the electroluminescence at low injection levels, changes in the density of surface states at the laser facets are described. © 1996 American Institute of Physics.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.60.-v Laser optical systems: design and operation
73.20.At Surface states, band structure, electron density of states

Photorefractive hologram fixing by a 4 K cooldown to the phase transition in K1−xLixTa1−yNbyO3

Aharon J. Agranat, Meir Razvag, and Michal Balberg

Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 2469 (1996); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.115823 (3 pages) | Cited 9 times

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A fixing process of photorefractive holograms is reported. The process is based on the formation of an ionic space charge which becomes mobile at the phase transition temperature. A fixed grating was formed in paraelectric potassium lithium niobate tantalate by a 4 K cooldown to Tc, and a warmup back to the paraelectric phase. The diffraction efficiency of the fixed grating was 66% of the original photorefractive space charge grating. © 1996 American Institute of Physics.
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42.65.Jx Beam trapping, self-focusing and defocusing; self-phase modulation
42.40.-i Holography

Operation and stability of antiguided flared amplifiers

S. Ramanujan and H. G. Winful

Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 2472 (1996); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.115824 (3 pages)

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We present a propagation model for the dynamics of antiguided flared amplifiers. This model takes into account diffraction, carrier diffusion, spatial hole burning, carrier‐induced antiguiding, and spontaneous emission. Numerical results demonstrate that flared antiguides are significantly less susceptible to noise induced filamentation than broad area devices. © 1996 American Institute of Physics.
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42.60.Da Resonators, cavities, amplifiers, arrays, and rings
42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes

Scattering spectroscopy of molecules at nanometer resolution

Y. Martin, F. Zenhausern, and H. K. Wickramasinghe

Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 2475 (1996); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.115825 (3 pages) | Cited 39 times

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A new form of optical spectroscopy is demonstrated whereby the local scattering from the interaction between a nanometer size probe tip and a sample is measured as a function of wavelength. We show images of viruses and molecules at molecular spatial resolution and demonstrate how the image contrast varies with wavelength. To first approximation, the contrast as a function of wavelength varies in the same way as the local polarizability of the sample © 1996 American Institute of Physics.
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07.60.-j Optical instruments and equipment
07.57.-c Infrared, submillimeter wave, microwave and radiowave instruments and equipment
87.64.-t Spectroscopic and microscopic techniques in biophysics and medical physics

Phase matching of rutile single crystal

Tadanori Hashimoto and Toshinobu Yoko

Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 2478 (1996); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.115826 (2 pages) | Cited 4 times

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Phase matching for the third‐harmonic generation (THG) of rutile single crystal (110) at 1.9 μm has been investigated. THG with a visible red light (633 nm) was clearly observed, indicating that TiO2 (rutile) is one of the most promising third‐order nonlinear optical materials. © 1996 American Institute of Physics.
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42.65.Ky Frequency conversion; harmonic generation, including higher-order harmonic generation

Photopumped infrared vertical‐cavity surface‐emitting laser

E. Hadji, J. Bleuse, N. Magnea, and J. L. Pautrat

Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 2480 (1996); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.115827 (3 pages) | Cited 19 times

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The feasibility of a photopumped infrared vertical‐cavity surface‐emitting laser (VCSEL) based on CdHgTe alloys is demonstrated. The structure of the VCSEL consists of a 16.5‐period Cd0.4Hg0.6Te/Cd0.75Hg0.25Te bottom Bragg reflector and a 3λ/4 thick Cd0.75Hg0.25Te cavity, containing a 100‐nm‐thick well, grown by molecular beam epitaxy. The top mirror is a 7‐period YF3/ZnS dielectric stack. The cavity quality factor is Q=350. This heterostructure VCSEL operates at 3.06 μm with a measured power density threshold of 45 kW/cm2 at 10 K. © 1996 American Institute of Physics.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.60.-v Laser optical systems: design and operation

Coherent tunable THz‐wave generation from LiNbO3 with monolithic grating coupler

Kodo Kawase, Manabu Sato, Tetsuo Taniuchi, and Hiromasa Ito

Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 2483 (1996); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.115828 (3 pages) | Cited 90 times

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Coherent THz‐wave generation is demonstrated utilizing a grating coupler fabricated on the surface of a LiNbO3 crystal pumped by a Q‐switched Nd:YAG laser. Wide tunability, sharp directivity, and high efficiency were achieved. © 1996 American Institute of Physics.
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42.65.Ky Frequency conversion; harmonic generation, including higher-order harmonic generation
42.65.Dr Stimulated Raman scattering; CARS
42.65.Es Stimulated Brillouin and Rayleigh scattering
42.55.Rz Doped-insulator lasers and other solid state lasers
78.30.-j Infrared and Raman spectra

Dynamics of barrier state electron self‐localization in InGaAs/InGaAsP multiple quantum well lasers

D. Finzi, N. Tessler, V. Mikhaelashvili, G. Eisenstein, A. G. Dentai, S. Chandraskhar, and C. H. Joyner

Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 2486 (1996); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.115829 (3 pages) | Cited 1 time

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We report details of lasing transitions based on self‐localized barrier state electrons in InGaAs/InGaAsP multiple quantum well lasers. We study the mechanisms responsible for the switching between conventional lasing transitions at 1460 nm and a self‐induced transition at 1360 nm. Carrier effects and current heating contribute both on a time scale of a few ns with the current heating dominating. Carrier effects are separable from the thermal effects when 100 ps wide electrical drive pulses are used. © 1996 American Institute of Physics.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.60.-v Laser optical systems: design and operation

Validation of a scattering state model for liquid crystal polymer composites

D. Bosc, C. Trubert, B. Vinouze, and M. Guilbert

Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 2489 (1996); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.115830 (2 pages) | Cited 9 times

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With a view to making highly efficient light shutters, the object of this study is to know the best structure of the liquid crystal polymer composite yielding a high extinction ratio. The main feature of this letter shows that experimental results are consistent with anomalous diffraction approach. For our demonstration, we made polymer dispersed liquid crystal (PDLC) cells having different droplet radius (a), ranging from 0.5 to 1 μm. In addition, a strong wavelength sensitivity with these radii is measured in the visible region. Beyond one micron, droplets yield higher transmission as regards both the wavelength and the optical anisotropy of the liquid crystal. These results bring forward that the most efficient PDLC films must follow the optimization relation: a(Δn)/λ=0.3, where λ is the wavelength and Δn the liquid crystal anisotropy. © 1996 American Institute of Physics.
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61.30.-v Liquid crystals

Pulsed laser‐induced desorption and optical imaging on a nanometer scale with scanning near‐field microscopy using chemically etched fiber tips

Dieter Zeisel, Stefan Nettesheim, Bertrand Dutoit, and Renato Zenobi

Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 2491 (1996); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.115831 (2 pages) | Cited 50 times

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Laser‐induced desorption on a nanometer scale using scanning near‐field optical microscopy (SNOM) is demonstrated. Pulsed laser‐induced desorption of anthracene with completely metallized SNOM fiber tips resulted in a lateral resolution of 70 nm. This became possible due to the use of chemically etched tips with a taper region smaller than 200 μm and cone angles varying from 6 to 30 degrees. These tips are further useful for optical imaging with a very high optical transmission coefficient (up to 10−3), achieving a lateral resolution of 80 nm. © 1996 American Institute of Physics.
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79.20.La Photon- and electron-stimulated desorption
07.79.Fc Near-field scanning optical microscopes

Second‐harmonic generation in a LiTaO3 waveguide domain‐inverted by proton exchange and masked heat treatment

Sang‐Yun Yi, Sang‐Yung Shin, Yong‐Sung Jin, and Yung‐Sung Son

Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 2493 (1996); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.115832 (3 pages) | Cited 8 times

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Second‐harmonic generation in the proton‐exchanged LiTaO3 waveguide is greatly enhanced by reducing the amount of proton exchange in fabricating the domain grating and the waveguide. To reduce the amount of proton exchange, a Ta‐SiO2 mask is used for the periodic domain inversion and a SiO2 mask for the proton‐exchanged waveguide. The fabricated device generates second‐harmonic blue light of 1 mW at 429 nm with the fundamental wave power of 10.3 mW. Its normalized efficiency is 1500 %/Wcm2, which is the highest value for LiTaO3 waveguide devices reported to date. © 1996 American Institute of Physics.
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42.65.Ky Frequency conversion; harmonic generation, including higher-order harmonic generation
42.82.Cr Fabrication techniques; lithography, pattern transfer

Reduction of relative intensity noise of the output field of semiconductor lasers due to propagation in dispersive optical fiber

W. K. Marshall, J. Paslaski, and A. Yariv

Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 2496 (1996); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.115833 (3 pages) | Cited 12 times

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The effect of dispersive, linear propagation (e.g., in single‐mode optical fiber) on the intensity noise from semiconductor lasers is investigated. Relations between the frequency and amplitude noise variations of semiconductor lasers are obtained from the laser rate equations and used to calculate the change in the relative intensity noise (RIN) spectrum that occurs during dispersive propagation. Propagation in fiber with positive dispersion (D≳0) over moderate distances (several km for standard single‐mode fiber at 1.55 μm) is found to reduce the RIN over a wide range of frequencies. Measurements with a 1.56 μm distributed feedback laser confirm the main theoretical results and demonstrate reductions in RIN of up to 11 dB with 4 km of standard fiber. © 1996 American Institute of Physics.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.60.Mi Dynamical laser instabilities; noisy laser behavior
42.81.Dp Propagation, scattering, and losses; solitons

Rapid two‐dimensional self‐consistent simulation of inductively coupled plasma and comparison with experimental data

Richard S. Wise, Dimitris P. Lymberopoulos, and Demetre J. Economou

Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 2499 (1996); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.115834 (3 pages) | Cited 31 times

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A methodology has been developed to achieve rapid two‐dimensional self‐consistent simulation of plasma transport and reaction in an inductively coupled source of arbitrary geometry and with arbitrary plasma and surface chemistries. In this modular finite element fluid simulation the reactor was divided into bulk plasma and sheath. The bulk plasma was assumed quasineutral and the electrons were assumed to be in Boltzmann equilibrium. Separate modules computed the power deposition into the plasma, electron temperature, charged species densities, and neutral species densities. Simulation results agreed favorably with available experimental data, taken in a chlorine plasma in a Gaseous Electronics Conference reference cell, without using any adjustable parameters. Rapid convergence makes the simulation tool especially attractive for technology computer‐aided design (TCAD) applications. © 1996 American Institute of Physics.
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52.65.-y Plasma simulation
52.77.Bn Etching and cleaning
52.77.Dq Plasma-based ion implantation and deposition

Epitaxial growth of metal phthalocyanines on hydrogen terminated vicinal surfaces of Si(111)

Toshihiro Shimada, Akira Suzuki, Takafumi Sakurada, and Atsushi Koma

Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 2502 (1996); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.115835 (3 pages) | Cited 16 times

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Hydrogen‐terminated vicinal Si(111) surfaces provide quasi‐van der Waals substrates with regularly spaced atomic height steps for the epitaxy of organic material films. Molecular beam epitaxy of vanadyl and copper phthalocyanines (VOPc and CuPc) was attempted on just‐cut and 7°‐miscut surfaces in order to investigate the effect of the steps on the epitaxial growth feature. The molecular arrangement of the films was characterized by a new technique using multiple‐azimuth reflection high energy electron diffraction. Growth on misoriented substrates producted VOPc monolayer films consisting of one‐dimensional chains nearly aligned to the steps and multilayer CuPc films with controlled domain orientations. © 1996 American Institute of Physics.
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81.15.Hi Molecular, atomic, ion, and chemical beam epitaxy
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology

Effect of LaNiO3/Pt double layers on the characteristics of (PbxLa1−x)(ZryTi1−y)O3 thin films

Tzu‐Feng Tseng, Kuo‐Shung Liu, Tai‐Bar Wu, and I.‐Nan Lin

Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 2505 (1996); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.115836 (6 pages) | Cited 16 times

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Characteristics of LaNiO3 (LNO) thin films deposited by rf sputtering process were compared with that prepared by pulsed laser deposition (PLD) process. rf sputtered LNO films were [200] preferentially oriented with a low surface resistivity (ρs=0.55 mΩ cm) and the PLD deposited films were [110] predominated with a slightly larger surface resistivity (ρs=6.38 mΩ cm). Using Pt coating as underneath layer markedly reduced the surface resistivity (ρs=0.05 mΩ cm) without modifying the texture characteristics of the LNO layers. PLZT films subsequently deposited on LNO layers inherited the texture characteristics of the underlying LNO layers. Ferroelectric properties of PLZT films were optimized when using LNO–Pt double layers as bottom electrodes. The remanent polarization and coercive force obtained were Pr=14.9 μC/cm2 and Ec=3.5 kV/cm, respectively. © 1996 American Institute of Physics.
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73.40.Rw Metal-insulator-metal structures
81.15.-z Methods of deposition of films and coatings; film growth and epitaxy
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology

Tantalum deposition on and reaction with the hydrogen terminated diamond (100) surface studied by Auger electron and electron energy loss spectroscopy

M. Pitter, M. B. Hugenschmidt, and R. J. Behm

Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 2508 (1996); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.115837 (3 pages) | Cited 1 time

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The evolution of the tantalum/diamond interface upon room‐temperature Ta deposition on the (100) surface of a boron doped, synthetically grown diamond single crystal was monitored by Auger electron spectroscopy (AES), ionization loss spectroscopy (ILS), and electron energy loss spectroscopy (ELS). Characteristic loss peaks indicate carbide formation at the interface from very low coverages on, reflecting the strong interaction between tantalum and carbon. Thicker layers of TaC are formed during subsequent thermal annealing by diffusion of carbon into the tantalum film, at the same time the topmost diamond region is transformed into poorly ordered graphitic carbon. © 1996 American Institute of Physics.
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73.40.Ns Metal-nonmetal contacts
68.35.Fx Diffusion; interface formation

The role of quantum‐confined excitons vs defects in the visible luminescence of SiO2 films containing Ge nanocrystals

K. S. Min, K. V. Shcheglov, C. M. Yang, Harry A. Atwater, M. L. Brongersma, and A. Polman

Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 2511 (1996); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.115838 (3 pages) | Cited 119 times

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Synthesis of Ge nanocrystals in SiO2 films is carried out by precipitation from a supersaturated solid solution of Ge in SiO2 made by Ge ion implantation. The films exhibit strong room‐temperature visible photoluminescence. The measured photoluminescence peak energy and lifetimes show poor correlations with nanocrystal size compared to calculations involving radiative recombination of quantum‐confined excitons in Ge quantum dots. In addition, the photoluminescence spectra and lifetime measurements show only a weak temperature dependence. These observations strongly suggest that the observed visible luminescence in our samples is not due to the radiative recombination of quantum‐confined excitons in Ge nanocrystals. Instead, observations of similar luminescence in Xe+‐implanted samples and reversible PL quenching by hydrogen or deuterium suggest that radiative defect centers in the SiO2 matrix are responsible for the observed luminescence. © 1996 American Institute of Physics.
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78.55.Hx Other solid inorganic materials
78.66.Sq Composite materials

Initial stage of layer‐by‐layer sputtering of Si(111) surfaces studied by scanning reflection electron microscopy

Heiji Watanabe and Masakazu Ichikawa

Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 2514 (1996); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.115839 (3 pages) | Cited 7 times

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The initial stage of layer‐by‐layer sputtering of Si(111) surfaces with 500 eV Ar ions has been studied by using scanning reflection electron microscopy. At a moderate temperature of 900 K, vacancy islands are formed in the middle of wide terraces. At higher temperatures over 990 K, the atomic steps retreat as the ion dose is increased. The results show that layer‐by‐layer sputtering is characterized by vacancy creation caused by ion impact, and by thermally activated surface migration of vacancies. Moreover, the step area decorated by electron‐beam‐assisted carbon deposition acts as a step pinning site during the layer‐by‐layer sputtering. © 1996 American Institute of Physics.
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81.65.Cf Surface cleaning, etching, patterning
61.80.Jh Ion radiation effects
61.72.Ff Direct observation of dislocations and other defects (etch pits, decoration, electron microscopy, x-ray topography, etc.)

Neutron‐capture‐induced radiation treatment of polymeric materials

Donald J. Rej, Mark M. Pickrell, and Debra A. Wrobleski

Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 2517 (1996); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.115840 (3 pages)

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A method for the bulk treatment of polymeric materials is proposed. Energetic ions created after capture of a neutron beam by constituent atoms located within the polymer can be used to cause radiation‐induced modifications such as cross linking in the polymer. In contrast to traditional ion implantation, the proposed method enables bulk treatment because of the relatively deep penetration of neutrons. Analytical estimates and Monte Carlo computations are performed for the 10B(n,α)7Li reaction for the cross linking and hydrogen depletion of boron‐doped polystyrene. Requirements for the polymer composition and microstructure, as well as potential synthesis methods are discussed. © 1996 American Institute of Physics.
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81.40.Wx Radiation treatment (particle and electromagnetic)
61.41.+e Polymers, elastomers, and plastics

Synthesis of 15R polytype of diamond in oxy‐acetylene flame grown diamond thin films

R. Kapil, B. R. Mehta, and V. D. Vankar

Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 2520 (1996); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.115841 (3 pages) | Cited 4 times

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15R polytype of diamond has been synthesized using a specially designed oxy‐acetylene flame system along with 3C diamond and cubic carbon on polycrystalline molybdenum substrates. X‐ray diffraction has been used to detect the 15R phase as the dominant phase in these films. Rapid changes in the substrate temperature during the growth process are expected to be responsible for the growth of these phases. © 1996 American Institute of Physics.
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81.15.-z Methods of deposition of films and coatings; film growth and epitaxy
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology

Growth of highly textured LiNbO3 thin film on Si with MgO buffer layer through the sol‐gel process

Jong‐Gul Yoon and Kun Kim

Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 2523 (1996); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.115842 (3 pages) | Cited 17 times

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Highly textured ferroelectric LiNbO3 thin films have been grown on MgO‐buffered Si (100)/(111) through the sol‐gel process under optimum conditions. These films show a high degree of c‐axis orientation regardless of the orientation of the Si substrates. Structural properties of the films were strongly influenced by the thickness of the MgO buffer layer probably due to the strains induced by the lattice and the thermal mismatch. Optimum thickness of the MgO buffer layer was found to be about 50 nm for the growth of a highly textured LiNbO3 film. An epitaxial‐like growth was observed by x‐ray pole figure analysis for the film on MgO/Si(111) obtained under a rapid thermal process above 900 °C. The surface morphology investigated by atomic force microscopy showed a growth behavior of crystalline grains as the thermal process was varied. © 1996 American Institute of Physics.
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81.15.Lm Liquid phase epitaxy; deposition from liquid phases (melts, solutions, and surface layers on liquids)
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
77.84.Ek Niobates and tantalates
77.84.Cg PZT ceramics and other titanates

Reduction of hot electron degradation in metal oxide semiconductor transistors by deuterium processing

J. W. Lyding, K. Hess, and I. C. Kizilyalli

Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 2526 (1996); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.116172 (3 pages) | Cited 165 times

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We report experimental results that replacing hydrogen with deuterium during the final wafer sintering process greatly reduces hot electron degradation effects in metal oxide semiconductor transistors due to a new giant isotope effect. Transistor lifetime improvements by factors of 10–50 are observed. A plausible physical theory suggests that the benefits of deuterium use may be general and also applicable to other areas of semiconductor device processing and fabrication. © 1996 American Institute of Physics.
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85.40.Hp Lithography, masks and pattern transfer

Nitrogen containing hydrogenated amorphous carbon for thin‐film field emission cathodes

Gehan A. J. Amaratunga and S. R. P. Silva

Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 2529 (1996); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.116173 (3 pages) | Cited 303 times

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Field emission measurements using 0.3 μm thick nitrogen containing hydrogenated amorphous carbon films (a‐C:H:N) on n++‐Si cathodes are reported. Onset emission fields as low as 4 V μm−1 have been obtained using a flat plate anode configuration. Uniform emission is observed over the entire cathode area at current densities below 7×10−2 mA cm−2. At higher current density preferential emission from spots is observed. The spot emission is imaged using the ITO coated plate anode. A model based on the a‐C:H:N acting as a space charge interlayer on the n++‐Si is proposed to explain the emission at low electric fields. © 1996 American Institute of Physics.
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79.70.+q Field emission, ionization, evaporation, and desorption

Current conduction in quantum well infrared photodetectors under low bias operation

Daniel C. Wang, Gijs Bosman, and Sheng S. Li

Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 2532 (1996); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.116174 (3 pages) | Cited 1 time

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Device operation under low applied bias voltage has been examined for both p‐type and n‐type quantum well infrared photodetectors. Under low electric fields and at low temperatures, the carrier lifetime in the quantum well bound states is large compared to the intrawell carrier scattering time, allowing the carriers to thermalize in the heavily doped quantum wells. This thermalization process partially or fully decouples the statistical fluctuations in carrier transport through a barrier region from one section to the next. Therefore, the device can be thought of as M statistically independent sections in series, where M is equal to the ratio of active device length over the extended state carrier trajectory. Based on this concept and the additional assumption that the charge transport process is emission limited, the dark current was calculated for four different devices. The excellent agreement between the measured and calculated dark current–voltage characteristics confirms our model assumptions. © 1996 American Institute of Physics.
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85.60.Dw Photodiodes; phototransistors; photoresistors
78.66.Fd III-V semiconductors
73.50.Gr Charge carriers: generation, recombination, lifetime, trapping, mean free paths

Separation of partition noise from generation‐recombination noise in a three‐terminal quantum well infrared photodetector

C. J. Chen, Ç. Kurdak, D. C. Tsui, and K. K. Choi

Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 2535 (1996); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.116175 (3 pages) | Cited 1 time

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In this letter, we present results from our systematic study of the low frequency noise in an infrared hot‐electron transistor. By measuring the correlation between emitter and collector noise currents, we are able to separate the partition noise and the generation‐recombination (g‐r) noise present in this three terminal device. Through the whole current range of more than two decades, the collector current noise SIc is always much larger than the cross‐spectrum density between emitter and collector currents SIeIc. We thus conclude that SIc comes mostly from the filtering process. © 1996 American Institute of Physics.
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72.20.Jv Charge carriers: generation, recombination, lifetime, and trapping
72.70.+m Noise processes and phenomena
85.60.Dw Photodiodes; phototransistors; photoresistors
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