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5 Feb 1996

Volume 68, Issue 6, pp. 729-873

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Comparison of thermally oxidized metal–oxide–semiconductor interfaces on 4H and 6H polytypes of silicon carbide

Jayarama N. Shenoy, James A. Cooper, and Michael R. Melloch

Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 803 (1996); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.116538 (3 pages) | Cited 20 times

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The 4H polytype of silicon carbide (SiC) has a wider band gap and higher electron mobility than either the 6H or 3C polytypes. We show here that similar oxidation rates and interfacial quality can be obtained on 4H‐SiC and 6H‐SiC by thermal oxidation. This makes the 4H polytype an attractive choice for developing SiC power metal–oxide–semiconductor field effect transistors. Postoxidation annealing in helium increases fixed charge and interface state densities in both 4H and 6H metal–oxide–semiconductor capacitors. © 1996 American Institute of Physics.
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81.65.Mq Oxidation

Growth and x‐ray characterization of strain compensated GaAs/AlAs distributed Bragg reflectors

A. Mazuelas, H. Nörenberg, R. Hey, and H. T. Grahn

Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 806 (1996); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.116539 (3 pages) | Cited 2 times

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We have grown strain compensated GaAs/AlAs distributed Bragg reflectors by solid source molecular beam epitaxy using carbon doping densities up to about 2×1020 cm−3. The residual strain with respect to the GaAs substrate can be as low as 1×10−4. This results in a large increase of their critical thickness with regard to the undoped case. We demonstrate that simulations of the x‐ray diffraction patterns are essential in order to determine the chemical profile as well as the structural parameters of the GaAs:C and AlAs:C layers with high accuracy. The effective incorporation of carbon on lattice sites is in AlAs:C twice as large as in GaAs:C using the same incident carbon flux. © 1996 American Institute of Physics.
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78.66.Fd III-V semiconductors

Improved heterojunction bipolar transistor reliability with carbon‐doped base

Guan‐Wu Wang

Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 809 (1996); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.116540 (3 pages) | Cited 3 times

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AlGaAs/GaAs heterojunction bipolar transistors (HBTs) with the carbon‐ or beryllium‐doped base have been fabricated and characterized with respect to device reliability. Under high current stress at elevated temperature, the device characteristics of the HBT with the beryllium‐doped base show severe degradation enhanced by ion implantation. In comparison, the HBT with the carbon‐doped base is not affected by the ion implantation and exhibits negligible device degradation after the stress. These results indicate the advantage of carbon doping for better HBT reliability. © 1996 American Institute of Physics.
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61.72.uj III-V and II-VI semiconductors
85.30.Pq Bipolar transistors

Low‐temperature AlGaAs/GaAs multiple quantum well structure and its application to photorefractive devices

W. Feng, Y. Yu, H. Chen, Q. Huang, and J. M. Zhou

Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 812 (1996); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.116541 (3 pages) | Cited 5 times

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We report the low‐temperature (LT) growth of a AlGaAs/GaAs multiple quantum well (MQW) structure by molecular beam epitaxy and demonstrate its application to photorefractive devices. The samples are semi‐insulating as grown, and show large electro‐optic effect. Resistivity up to 108 Ω cm has been observed. The electroabsorption approaches 3000 cm−1 and the electrorefraction is higher than 1.5% for dc electric field of 15 kV/cm. The effect of annealing on electrical and optical properties of LT AlGaAs/GaAs MQW has also been investigated. © 1996 American Institute of Physics.
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42.65.Jx Beam trapping, self-focusing and defocusing; self-phase modulation
42.70.Nq Other nonlinear optical materials; photorefractive and semiconductor materials
78.66.Fd III-V semiconductors

Study of a backgated metal‐semiconductor‐metal photodetector

A. J. Vickers, M. A. Hassan, H. R. Mashakekhi, A. Griguoli, and M. Hopkinson

Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 815 (1996); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.116542 (3 pages) | Cited 4 times

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In this letter we outline our results on a new type of high‐speed photodetector [E. Gregor et al., Appl. Phys. Lett. 65, 2223 (1994)]. The device is based on the hybridization of a metal‐semiconductor‐metal photodetector and a p‐i‐n photodiode. The advantage of the device, which operates in the transit‐time limited regime, is that it removes the hole current from the high‐speed circuit through a third contact, and hence, increases the response speed of the device. In contrast to the previously published work [E. Gregor et al., Appl. Phys. Lett. 65, 2223 (1994)] we have used an excitation pulse that is much faster than the device response in order to fully investigate the effect of the third contact. We observe significantly more effect on the response once the third contact is connected with a subsequent increase of device response speed with increasing application of bias to this third contact. © 1996 American Institute of Physics.
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85.60.Gz Photodetectors (including infrared and CCD detectors)

Piezoresistive effect in wurtzite n‐type GaN

A. D. Bykhovski, V. V. Kaminski, M. S. Shur, Q. C. Chen, and M. A. Khan

Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 818 (1996); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.116543 (2 pages) | Cited 95 times

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We report on the measurements of the piezoresistive effect in the n‐type wurtzite GaN films. The 3–5 μm thick GaN layers were deposited slightly off axis over basal plane sapphire substrates. The static and dynamic gauge factor (GF) of these structures was measured at room temperature for both longitudinal and transverse configurations. The dynamic effect is related to a strong piezoeffect in GaN. The maximum dynamic GF observed was ∼130 (approximately four times larger than for SiC). © 1996 American Institute of Physics.
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73.61.Ey III-V semiconductors
77.65.-j Piezoelectricity and electromechanical effects

Excitation power and barrier width dependence of photoluminescence in piezoelectric multiquantum well p‐i‐n structures

J. P. R. David, T. E. Sale, A. S. Pabla, P. J. Rodríguez‐Gironés, J. Woodhead, R. Grey, G. J. Rees, P. N. Robson, M. S. Skolnick, and R. A. Hogg

Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 820 (1996); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.116544 (3 pages) | Cited 9 times

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Strained InGaAs/GaAs multiquantum well (MQW) structures grown on (111)B GaAs sub‐ strates incorporate strong internal piezoelectric fields. In contrast to (100)‐oriented MQW p‐i‐n structures, the room temperature photoluminescence (PL) peak position and lineshape depend on the barrier width, which controls the ‘‘envelope field’’ across the MQW. The complex behavior of the PL peak position with excitation power results from a competition between screening of the well and envelope fields, and the photovoltaic effect. © 1996 American Institute of Physics.
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78.55.Cr III-V semiconductors
78.66.Fd III-V semiconductors

Enhancement of terahertz acoustic‐phonon generation by the magnetic field applied parallel to a two‐dimensional semiconductor system

W. Xu and C. Zhang

Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 823 (1996); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.116545 (3 pages) | Cited 7 times

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In this letter, we present a theoretical study on terahertz (THz) acoustic‐phonon emission in AlxGa1−xAs parabolic quantum‐well structures in parallel magnetic fields. Our theoretical results show that (i) the generation of acoustic‐phonon signals can be enhanced significantly by the in‐plane magnetic fields; (ii) the strongest acoustic‐phonon emission can be observed around a magnetic field where an electronic subband becomes depopulated; (iii) the generated acoustic‐phonon frequency depends weakly on the magnetic fields; and (iv) the presence of an in‐plane magnetic field slightly varies the acoustic‐phonon emission angle from that at zero magnetic field. © 1996 American Institute of Physics.
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63.22.-m Phonons or vibrational states in low-dimensional structures and nanoscale materials

Equilibrium tunneling between two‐dimensional and quasi‐one‐dimensional electron gases in devices fabricated by in situ focused ion beam lithography

B. Kardynał, E. H. Linfield, D. A. Ritchie, K. M. Brown, C. H. W. Barnes, G. A. C. Jones, and M. Pepper

Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 826 (1996); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.116546 (3 pages) | Cited 5 times

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Equilibrium resonant tunneling between an array of quasi‐one‐dimensional wires and two‐dimensional electron gas has been studied as a function of the Fermi energy of the tunneling electrons, which was varied by the bias voltage applied to an in‐built back gate. The equilibrium resonant tunneling differential conductance, measured in the double quantum well system, reflects both the electron density and wave functions of the one‐dimensional electron gas. © 1996 American Institute of Physics.
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73.21.-b Electron states and collective excitations in multilayers, quantum wells, mesoscopic, and nanoscale systems
73.40.Gk Tunneling

Temperature of quasi‐two‐dimensional electron gases under steady‐state terahertz drive

N. G. Asmar, J. Černe, A. G. Markelz, E. G. Gwinn, M. S. Sherwin, K. L. Campman, and A. C. Gossard

Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 829 (1996); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.116547 (3 pages) | Cited 36 times

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We use photoluminescence to study the time‐average energy distribution of electrons in the presence of strong steady‐state drive at terahertz (THz) frequencies, in a modulation‐doped 125 Å AlGaAs/GaAs square well that is held at low lattice temperature TL. We find that the energy distribution can be characterized by an effective electron temperature, Te(≳TL), that agrees well with values estimated from the THz‐illuminated, dc conductivity. This agreement indicates that under strong THz drive, LO phonon scattering dominates both energy and momentum relaxation; that the carrier distribution maintains a heated, thermal form; and that phonon drift effects are negligible. © 1996 American Institute of Physics.
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72.20.-i Conductivity phenomena in semiconductors and insulators
72.20.Ht High-field and nonlinear effects
73.50.Fq High-field and nonlinear effects

Preparation of low dielectric constant F‐doped SiO2 films by plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition

Sang Woo Lim, Yukihiro Shimogaki, Yoshiaki Nakano, Kunio Tada, and Hiroshi Komiyama

Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 832 (1996); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.116548 (3 pages) | Cited 18 times

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Signal delays in interlayer films limit the performance of very large scale integrated (VLSI) circuits. Signal delays can be reduced by using interlayer films with low dielectric constants, such as fluorine‐doped (F‐doped) SiO2 films. We were able to fabricate F‐doped SiO2 films with dielectric constants as low as 2.3 and with good step coverage, by adding CF4 to SiH4/N2O plasma‐enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD). The reduction of the dielectric constant apparently results from a decrease of the ionic polarization. The improvement of step coverage is due to a decrease of the sticking probability of the film‐forming species. © 1996 American Institute of Physics.
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61.72.up Other materials
73.61.Ng Insulators
81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)

Effect of hydrogen dilution on the deposition rate of hydrogenerated amorphous silicon films in a modified pulsed plasma discharge

C. Mukherjee, C. Anandan, Tanay Seth, P. N. Dixit, and R. Bhattacharyya

Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 835 (1996); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.116549 (3 pages) | Cited 3 times

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Hydrogen dilution effects on the growth of a‐Si:H films in a modified pulsed plasma discharge are studied for two different silane flow conditions with hydrogen dilution ranging from 0% to 80%. The increase of deposition rate (rd) due to hydrogen dilution is attributed mainly to changes in electron density (ne) and electron decay time constant (τe). Concurrently, it appears that hydrogen dilution mitigates the deleterious effects of secondary plasma reactions. Increasing the dwell time of the high power period under hydrogen dilution also increases rd, accompanied by an enhancement of photoconductivity (σph) as compared to films grown under similar conditions without dilution. The decrease in rd at dilution ≳25% is seen as the onset of a process of etching, presumably by atomic hydrogen, and this limits rd irrespective of the availability of the number of silane molecules at such dilutions. Time‐resolved optical emission spectroscopy results for H∗ emission supports the above views. © 1996 American Institute of Physics.
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81.05.Gc Amorphous semiconductors
81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)

Peak‐to‐valley ratio of small resonant‐tunneling diodes with various barrier‐thickness asymmetries

T. Schmidt, M. Tewordt, R. J. Haug, K. v. Klitzing, B. Schönherr, P. Grambow, A. Förster, and H. Lüth

Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 838 (1996); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.116550 (3 pages) | Cited 9 times

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Resonant tunneling through small double‐barrier heterostructures is investigated in dependence of the charge accumulation in the quantum well and the device diameter. The study comprises a series of resonant‐tunneling diodes with four different barrier‐thickness ratios and diameters between 300 nm and 10 μm. Special emphasis lies on the peak‐to‐valley ratio of the resonant‐tunneling current peaks, which drops drastically with decreasing device diameter for weak electron accumulation, while it is size independent in the strong‐charging case. © 1996 American Institute of Physics.
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73.21.-b Electron states and collective excitations in multilayers, quantum wells, mesoscopic, and nanoscale systems
73.40.Gk Tunneling

High oxygen and carbon contents in GaAs epilayers grown below a critical substrate temperature by molecular beam epitaxy

C. H. Goo, W. S. Lau, T. C. Chong, L. S. Tan, and Paul K. Chu

Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 841 (1996); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.116551 (3 pages) | Cited 4 times

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By quantitative secondary ion mass spectroscopy (SIMS) analyses, oxygen and carbon contents in GaAs epitaxial layers grown by molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) were found to increase significantly when the growth temperature was reduced below a critical value at about 450 °C. The concentrations of oxygen and carbon in GaAs epilayers grown below the critical temperature were about 4×1017 cm−3 and 3×1016 cm−3, respectively. Meanwhile, impurity accumulation during growth interruption became faster resulting in even higher interfacial impurity concentrations. Oxygen and carbon will affect the electrical properties of the GaAs epilayers, especially those grown between 350 °C and 450 °C where defects related to excess As may not be dominating. © 1996 American Institute of Physics.
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68.55.Ln Defects and impurities: doping, implantation, distribution, concentration, etc.
81.15.Hi Molecular, atomic, ion, and chemical beam epitaxy

Epitaxial growth of zinc‐blende ZnSe/MgS superlattices on (001) GaAs

Katsuhiro Uesugi, Toshio Obinata, Ikuo Suemune, Hidekazu Kumano, and Jun’ichiro Nakahara

Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 844 (1996); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.116552 (3 pages) | Cited 19 times

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We report the growth of zinc‐blende ZnSe/MgS superlattices (SLs) on GaAs (001) substrates. The SLs were grown with metalorganic vapor phase epitaxy by selecting appropriate precursors for Mg and S. MgS naturally forms rocksalt structures, but zinc‐blende MgS layers were grown. The lattice constant of MgS was estimated to be 5.59 Å. X‐ray diffraction measurements show that the ZnSe/MgS SLs are grown coherently to the GaAs substrates up to the total thicknesses of ∼3000 Å. © 1996 American Institute of Physics.
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81.05.Dz II-VI semiconductors
81.15.Kk Vapor phase epitaxy; growth from vapor phase

Etching of InP at ≳1 μm/min in Cl2/Ar plasma chemistries

J. W. Lee, J. Hong, and S. J. Pearton

Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 847 (1996); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.116553 (3 pages) | Cited 40 times

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A simple Cl2/Ar plasma chemistry without additional sample heating is found to produce etch rates above 1 μm/min for InP under high microwave power (1000 W) electron cyclotron resonance conditions. While the etch rate increases essentially linearly with Cl2 composition the root‐mean‐square (RMS) surface roughness measured by atomic force microscopy is strongly dependent on the Cl2‐to‐Ar ratio. Under optimized conditions (10Cl2/5Ar), RMS roughness of ∼2.6 nm is obtained on samples etched more than 1 μm, a typical unetched control sample displays a RMS value of 1.3–1.6 nm. The high ion current under ECR conditions appears to promote efficient sputter desorption of the InCl3 etch product and prevents buildup of the usual selvedge layer that requires elevated sample temperatures to desorb under more conventional reactive ion etching conditions. The result is a simplified plasma chemistry with avoidance of the polymer deposition and hydrogen passivation associated with CH4/H2 discharges. © 1996 American Institute of Physics.
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81.65.Cf Surface cleaning, etching, patterning

Blue luminescence from Si+‐implanted SiO2 films thermally grown on crystalline silicon

Liang‐Sheng Liao, Xi‐Mao Bao, Xiang‐Qin Zheng, Ning‐Sheng Li, and Nai‐Ben Min

Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 850 (1996); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.116554 (3 pages) | Cited 139 times

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Si ions were implanted into thermally grown SiO2 films on crystalline Si at an energy of 120 keV and with a dose of 1016 cm−2. Under an ultraviolet excitation of ∼5.0 eV, the implanted films exhibit blue luminescence with a peak of ∼2.7 eV at room temperature. The blue emission is caused by oxygen vacancies in the films. © 1996 American Institute of Physics.
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78.55.Hx Other solid inorganic materials
78.66.Nk Insulators

Noise temperature limit of a superconducting hot‐electron bolometer mixer

B. S. Karasik and A. I. Elantiev

Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 853 (1996); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.116555 (3 pages) | Cited 40 times

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A theoretical analysis for the noise temperature of a low‐temperature hot‐electron superconducting mixer has been presented. The contribution of both Johnson noise and electron temperature fluctuations has been evaluated. The theoretical limit of the single‐side band noise temperature of the device due to the intrinsic noise mechanisms has been estimated to be as low as 20–40 K, depending on the film material. The corresponding noise bandwidth can be as large as 2–3 GHz, for a device with the electron‐phonon cooling mechanism. An improvement of the sensitivity is not necessarily followed by a decrease of the mixer conversion gain bandwidth. © 1996 American Institute of Physics.
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74.40.-n Fluctuation phenomena
74.78.-w Superconducting films and low-dimensional structures
85.25.Am Superconducting device characterization, design, and modeling

Fishtail effect and small size normal core pinning in melt‐textured‐growth YBa2Cu3O7−δ bulks

Hai‐hu Wen and Zhong‐xian Zhao

Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 856 (1996); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.116556 (3 pages) | Cited 17 times

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By measuring the magnetization hysteresis loops and the remanent magnetization relaxation for a melt‐textured‐growth YBa2Cu3O7−δ bulk with two different oxygen concentrations, we found that the extra oxygen deficiencies enhance the flux pinning and the fishtail effect in low and intermediate temperature region. This strongly suggests that the fishtail effect is related to the elementary pinning centers. A model concerning the nonuniform distribution of upper critical field among the pinning sites is proposed to explain the fishtail effect. Finally, we present some evidence to support this model. © 1996 American Institute of Physics.
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74.25.Uv Vortex phases (includes vortex lattices, vortex liquids, and vortex glasses)
74.72.-h Cuprate superconductors

Reduction of low‐frequency excess noise in superconducting quantum interference devices by applying high‐frequency magnetic fields

S. Schöne, M. Mück, and C. Heiden

Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 859 (1996); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.116557 (3 pages) | Cited 12 times

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We have investigated a possible reduction of low‐frequency excess noise and the dependence of the flux signal on temperature changes in direct current superconducting quantum interference devices, dc SQUIDs, generated by trapped flux. Niobium thin film dc SQUIDs, carefully cooled down in a well shielded environment, have been exposed to switching transients. The thereby generated low‐frequency excess noise and in some case an excess white noise, could substantially be reduced by applying a rf magnetic field of sufficiently high frequency to the SQUID. The temperature dependence of the flux signal of the SQUID and the magnetic field dependence of the drift could also be reduced in these cases, where the drift is caused by movement of trapped vortices. © 1996 American Institute of Physics.
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74.40.-n Fluctuation phenomena
85.25.Dq Superconducting quantum interference devices (SQUIDs)

Superconductivity above 130 K in high‐quality mercury‐based cuprate thin films

S. H. Yun and J. Z. Wu

Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 862 (1996); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.116525 (3 pages) | Cited 39 times

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Superconductivity above 130 K has been achieved in c‐axis‐oriented HgBa2Ca2Cu3O8+δ thin films. At 5 K, the superconducting critical current density (Jc) of the film is 23 MA/cm2 in the absence of magnetic field and above 2 MA/cm2 in 5 T magnetic field with the field along the c axis. A zero field Jc of 0.5 MA/cm2 is maintained to temperatures over 100 K, which indicates that the mercury‐based cuprate thin films are promising for applications of superconducting electronic devices operating at above 100 K. © 1996 American Institute of Physics.
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74.25.-q Properties of superconductors
74.72.-h Cuprate superconductors

Synchrotron radiation ablative photodecomposition and production of crystalline fluoropolymer thin films

T. Katoh and Y. Zhang

Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 865 (1996); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.116526 (3 pages) | Cited 16 times

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Deposition of crystalline thin films of polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) was carried out on Si(100) substrates by synchrotron irradiation of a PTFE target in vacuo. In situ mass spectrometric analysis of gaseous species evolved during the irradiation shows that, different from the laser ablation of PTFE for the deposition, the SR‐induced reactions should be ablative photochemical decomposition (APD) rather than photothermal unzipping decomposition, yielding saturated fluorocarbons rather than monomers as the main gaseous products. Detection of a trace of CF3 in the deposited films by XPS and FTIR was consistent with our APD mechanism. In our processing, an increase in the target temperature made great improvements including considerable enhancement of the deposition rates, reduction of the CF3 component, and achievement of the crystalline features closer to the PTFE target, whereas an increase in the substrate temperature made the film surface rough. © 1996 American Institute of Physics.
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81.05.Lg Polymers and plastics; rubber; synthetic and natural fibers; organometallic and organic materials
81.15.-z Methods of deposition of films and coatings; film growth and epitaxy
82.50.-m Photochemistry

Nanostructure fabrication using laser field enhancement in the near field of a scanning tunneling microscope tip

J. Jersch and K. Dickmann

Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 868 (1996); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.116527 (3 pages) | Cited 87 times

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The scanning tunneling microscope (STM) has been combined with laser excitation and was used for modification of metal surfaces in air. This technique enables processing of structures with a lateral resolution of approximately 10 nm. The form of the created features ranges from craters and ditches to hillocks. The process has been demonstrated on gold and gold/palladium substrates by utilization of tungsten, silver, and platin/iridium tips. Using pure silver tips or silver‐coated tungsten tips, a transfer of tip atoms to the substrate occurred. In the case of uncoated tungsten tips, we observed substrate evaporation and surface grain reorganization at low laser intensities, respectively. No distortion of the employed tips during the structuring process was observed. Several future oriented applications are conceivable, such as, for example, high density data storage and fresnel optics for x rays. © 1996 American Institute of Physics.
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68.37.Ef Scanning tunneling microscopy (including chemistry induced with STM)
68.37.Ps Atomic force microscopy (AFM)
68.37.Rt Magnetic force microscopy (MFM)
68.37.Uv Near-field scanning microscopy and spectroscopy
81.07.-b Nanoscale materials and structures: fabrication and characterization
81.16.-c Methods of micro- and nanofabrication and processing
85.35.-p Nanoelectronic devices

Atomic force microscopy for high speed imaging using cantilevers with an integrated actuator and sensor

S. R. Manalis, S. C. Minne, and C. F. Quate

Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 871 (1996); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.116528 (3 pages) | Cited 65 times

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A cantilever with an integrated ZnO piezoelectric actuator in feedback with a piezoresistive sensor is utilized in an atomic force microscope (AFM) to achieve a new high speed imaging technique. The imaging bandwidth is increased from 0.6 to 6 kHz by bending the cantilever over sample topography with the actuator rather than moving the sample with a 2 in. piezotube. Images taken in the constant force mode with a 3 mm/s tip velocity of a sample containing 2 μm vertical steps are presented. The effects of electrical coupling from the actuator were eliminated by measuring the piezoresistor sensor with a lock‐in amplifier. © 1996 American Institute of Physics.
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07.79.Lh Atomic force microscopes
68.37.Ef Scanning tunneling microscopy (including chemistry induced with STM)
68.37.Ps Atomic force microscopy (AFM)
68.37.Rt Magnetic force microscopy (MFM)
68.37.Uv Near-field scanning microscopy and spectroscopy
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